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Management of Diabetic Ketoacidosis. ABBAS E. KITABCHI, PH.D., M.D., and BARRY M. Literature Ap Essay Questions. WALL, M.D., University of Tennessee, Memphis, College of Medicine, Memphis, Tennessee. Am Fam Physician. 1999 Aug 1;60(2):455-464. This article exemplifies the AAFP 1999 Annual Clinical Focus on management and prevention of the complications of diabetes . Diabetic ketoacidosis is an emergency medical condition that can be life-threatening if not treated properly. The incidence of this condition may be increasing, and form essay a 1 to 2 percent mortality rate has stubbornly persisted since the 1970s. Diabetic ketoacidosis occurs most often in patients with type 1 diabetes (formerly called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus); however, its occurrence in literature ap essay, patients with type 2 diabetes (formerly called non#x2013;insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus), particularly obese black patients, is not as rare as was once thought. The management of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis includes obtaining a thorough but rapid history and performing a physical examination in an attempt to development doctrine identify possible precipitating factors. The major treatment of this condition is initial rehydration (using isotonic saline) with subsequent potassium replacement and low-dose insulin therapy. Questions. The use of bicarbonate is not recommended in most patients.

Cerebral edema, one of the most dire complications of diabetic ketoacidosis, occurs more commonly in children and adolescents than in adults. Continuous follow-up of addition words patients using treatment algorithms and flow sheets can help to literature questions minimize adverse outcomes. Newman Essay. Preventive measures include patient education and instructions for the patient to contact the physician early during an illness. Diabetic ketoacidosis is a triad of hyperglycemia, ketonemia and acidemia, each of which may be caused by other conditions ( Figure 1 ) .1 Although diabetic ketoacidosis most often occurs in patients with type 1 diabetes (formerly called insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus), more recent studies suggest that it can sometimes be the presenting condition in obese black patients with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes (formerly called non#x2013;insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus).2 , 3. Diagnostic Triad of Diabetic Ketoacidosis. The rightsholder did not grant rights to literature reproduce this item in electronic media. For the missing item, see the original print version of an essay fundamentals of research this publication. The commonly used diagnostic criteria for diabetic ketoacidosis and literature ap essay questions average deficits of water and newman doctrine electrolytes are given in Table 1 .4 The therapeutic regimen, which consists of replacing fluid and electrolyte losses and literature administering low-dose insulin, is based on an understanding of the pathogenesis of the condition. For Essay. Although protocols for the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis are well established, a 1 to 2 percent mortality rate has persisted since the 1970s,5 emphasizing the need for careful, ongoing evaluation of this sometimes #x201c;routine#x201d; medical emergency.

Diagnostic Criteria and literature questions Typical Total Body Deficits of Water and Electrolytes in Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Blood glucose: 250 mg per dL (13.9 mmol per L) Serum bicarbonate: 15 mEq per L. Serum ketone: positive at 1:2 dilutions#x2020; Serum osmolality: variable.

Water: 6 L, or 100 mL per kg body weight. Sodium: 7 to 10 mEq per kg body weight. Potassium: 3 to 5 mEq per kg body weight. 1.0 mmol per kg body weight. *#x2014; Not all patients will meet all diagnostic criteria, depending on hydration status, previous administration of diabetes treatment and other factors . #x2020;#x2014; Nitroprusside reaction method . Adapted with permission from government Ennis ED, Stahl EJ, Kreisberg RA. Diabetic ketoacidosis. In: Porte D Jr, Sherwin RS, eds. Ellenberg and literature Rifkin's Diabetes mellitus. 5th ed. Stamford, Conn.: Appleton Lange, 1997;827#x2013;44 . Diagnostic Criteria and Typical Total Body Deficits of Water and Electrolytes in Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Blood glucose: 250 mg per dL (13.9 mmol per L)

Serum bicarbonate: 15 mEq per L. Serum ketone: positive at 1:2 dilutions#x2020; Serum osmolality: variable. Water: 6 L, or 100 mL per to include in introduction essay kg body weight. Sodium: 7 to 10 mEq per kg body weight. Potassium: 3 to 5 mEq per kg body weight. 1.0 mmol per kg body weight. *#x2014; Not all patients will meet all diagnostic criteria, depending on hydration status, previous administration of diabetes treatment and other factors . #x2020;#x2014; Nitroprusside reaction method . Adapted with permission from questions Ennis ED, Stahl EJ, Kreisberg RA.

Diabetic ketoacidosis. Write An Essay On The Fundamentals Of Research. In: Porte D Jr, Sherwin RS, eds. Ellenberg and Rifkin's Diabetes mellitus. 5th ed. Literature. Stamford, Conn.: Appleton Lange, 1997;827#x2013;44 . Major components of the pathogenesis of diabetic ketoacidosis are reductions in effective concentrations of circulating insulin and concomitant elevations of counterregulatory hormones (catecholamines, glucagon, growth hormone and cortisol).6 These hormonal alterations bring about three major metabolic events: (1) hyperglycemia resulting from accelerated gluconeogenesis and decreased glucose utilization, (2) increased proteolysis and decreased protein synthesis and (3) increased lipolysis and ketone production.7. Hyperglycemia initially causes the movement of what water out of cells, with subsequent intracellular dehydration, extra-cellular fluid expansion and hyponatremia. It also leads to a diuresis in which water losses exceed sodium chloride losses. Urinary losses then lead to literature ap essay questions progressive dehydration and volume depletion, which causes diminished urine flow and essay doctrine greater retention of glucose in plasma. Questions. The net result of all these alterations is essay doctrine hyperglycemia with metabolic acidosis and an increased plasma anion gap.8. Evaluation of Patients with Diabetic Ketoacidosis. The history and physical examination continue to be important aspects of management.

Even in comatose patients, information documenting a history of diabetes or insulin therapy may be available. Literature Ap Essay Questions. The physical examination can provide supportive evidence for the diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis and can point to precipitating factors (Table 2) .3 , 4. Factors Most Often Associated with the Development of Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Omission of insulin or inadequate insulin. Initial presentation of footnoting diabetes mellitus. Adapted with permission from Umpierrez GE, Kelly JP, Navarrete JE, Casals MM, Kitabchi AE. Hyperglycemic crises in urban blacks. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:669#x2013;75, and Ennis ED, Stahl EJ, Kreisberg RA.

Diabetic ketoacidosis. In: Porte D Jr, Sherwin RS, eds. Ellenberg Rifkin's Diabetes mellitus. 5th ed. Stamford, Conn.: Appleton Lange, 1997;827#x2013;44 . Factors Most Often Associated with the Development of Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Omission of insulin or inadequate insulin. Initial presentation of diabetes mellitus. Adapted with permission from Umpierrez GE, Kelly JP, Navarrete JE, Casals MM, Kitabchi AE. Hyperglycemic crises in urban blacks.

Arch Intern Med 1997;157:669#x2013;75, and Ennis ED, Stahl EJ, Kreisberg RA. Diabetic ketoacidosis. In: Porte D Jr, Sherwin RS, eds. Ellenberg Rifkin's Diabetes mellitus. 5th ed. Stamford, Conn.: Appleton Lange, 1997;827#x2013;44 . Although usually straightforward, the diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis is occasionally missed in questions, unusual situations, such as when it is the initial presentation of diabetes in infants or elderly patients or when patients present with sepsis or infarction of the about, brain, bowel or myocardium. These presentations can distract the physician from the literature questions, underlying diagnosis of form diabetic ketoacidosis. The laboratory tests needed to confirm the literature ap essay questions, presence of diabetic ketoacidosis and to screen for precipitating events are summarized in addition words for essay, Table 14 and literature ap essay questions Figure 2 . The essential data can be obtained promptly in the emergency department.

Management of Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Protocol for the management of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. (IV = intravenous; SC = subcutaneous; IM = intramuscular) Management of Diabetic Ketoacidosis. Protocol for the management of patients with diabetic ketoacidosis. (IV = intravenous; SC = subcutaneous; IM = intramuscular) The therapeutic goals for diabetic ketoacidosis consist of essay the summer season improving circulatory volume and tissue perfusion, reducing blood glucose and serum osmolality toward normal levels, clearing ketones from serum and urine at a steady rate, correcting electrolyte imbalances and literature questions identifying precipitating factors. A suggested flow sheet for monitoring therapeutic response is provided in Figure 3 .6. Flow Sheet for Monitoring Diabetic Ketoacidosis. A suggested flow sheet for what to include of extended essay, monitoring response to therapy for diabetic ketoacidosis. Literature Ap Essay. (PaO 2 = partial pressure of oxygen; PaCO 2 = partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide) Adapted with permission from Kitabchi AE, Fisher JN, Murphy MB, Rumbak MJ. Essay Development Doctrine. Diabetic ketoacidosis and the hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic state.

In: Kahn CR, Weir GC, eds. Joslin's Diabetes mellitus. 13th ed. Baltimore: Williams Wilkins, 1994:738#x2013;70 . Flow Sheet for Monitoring Diabetic Ketoacidosis. A suggested flow sheet for monitoring response to therapy for diabetic ketoacidosis. (PaO 2 = partial pressure of oxygen; PaCO 2 = partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide) Adapted with permission from Kitabchi AE, Fisher JN, Murphy MB, Rumbak MJ. Diabetic ketoacidosis and the hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic state. Ap Essay. In: Kahn CR, Weir GC, eds. Joslin's Diabetes mellitus.

13th ed. Baltimore: Williams Wilkins, 1994:738#x2013;70 . The severity of democracy government essay fluid and sodium deficits (Table 1) 4 is determined primarily by the duration of hyperglycemia, the level of renal function and the patient's fluid intake. Dehydration can be estimated by clinical examination and by calculating total serum osmolality and ap essay the corrected serum sodium concentration. Total serum osmolality is calculated using the following equation: The measured serum sodium concentration can be corrected for the changes related to hyperglycemia by adding 1.6 mEq per L (1.6 mmol per democracy essay L) to the measured sodium value for literature questions, every 100 mg per dL (5.6 mmol per L) of glucose over the normal baseline of 100 mg per dL.1 , 8 Corrected serum sodium concentrations of greater than 140 mEq per L (140 mmol per L) and calculated total osmolalities of greater than 330 mOsm per kg of water are associated with large fluid deficits.4 , 6 Calculated total osmolalities are correlated with mental status, in that stupor and coma typically occur with an osmolality of greater than 330 mOsm per to include in introduction of extended essay kg of water.1 , 6. The initial priority in ap essay, the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis is the essay, restoration of extra-cellular fluid volume through the intravenous administration of a normal saline (0.9 percent sodium chloride) solution. This step will restore intravascular volume, decrease counterregulatory hormones and lower the blood glucose level.9 As a result, insulin sensitivity may be augmented. In patients with mild to moderate volume depletion, infusion rates of 7 mL per literature questions kg per hour have been as efficacious as infusion rates of essay about the summer season 14 mL per literature ap essay questions kg per hour.10 The subsequent administration of a hypotonic saline (0.45 percent sodium chloride) solution, which is similar in composition to the fluid lost during osmotic diuresis, leads to words gradual replacement of deficits in literature ap essay questions, both intracellular and extracellular compartments. When the blood glucose concentration is approximately 250 mg per dL (13.9 mmol per essay L), glucose should be added to the hydration fluid (i.e., 5 percent dextrose in hypotonic saline solution).

This allows continued insulin administration until ketonemia is controlled and also helps to avoid iatrogenic hypoglycemia. Another important aspect of rehydration therapy in patients with diabetic ketoacidosis is the replacement of ongoing urinary losses. Modern management of diabetic ketoacidosis has emphasized the use of lower doses of literature questions insulin. This has been shown to be the most efficacious treatment in addition words, both children and adults with diabetic ketoacidosis.11 #x2013; 14 The current recommendation is to give low-dose (short-acting regular) insulin after the diagnosis of diabetic ketoacidosis has been confirmed by laboratory tests and ap essay questions fluid replacement has been initiated. It is prudent to withhold insulin therapy until the serum potassium concentration has been determined. In the rare patient who presents with hypokalemia, insulin therapy may worsen the what to include in introduction essay, hypokalemia and precipitate life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias.1 , 2.

Standard low-dose insulin therapy consists of an initial intravenous bolus of 0.15 unit of regular insulin per kg followed by the continuous intravenous infusion of regular insulin prepared in normal saline or hypotonic saline solution at a rate of 0.1 unit per kg per literature ap essay hour. In clinical situations in which continuous intravenous insulin cannot be administered, the recommended initial insulin dose is 0.3 unit per kg, with one half of the dose given as an intravenous bolus and the remainder given subcutaneously or intramuscularly ( Figure 2 ) . Subsequently, regular insulin should be given in democracy form government, a dosage of 0.1 unit per kg per literature questions hour until the democracy government, blood glucose level is literature ap essay approximately 250 mg per dL. If the blood glucose concentration does not fall by 50 to 70 mg per dL (2.8 to 3.9 mmol per L) in the first hour, the intravenous infusion rate should be doubled or additional intravenous 10-unit boluses of insulin should be given every hour ( Figure 2 ) . Either of these treatments should be continued until the blood glucose level falls by 50 to government 70 mg per dL. Low-dose insulin therapy typically produces a linear fall in the glucose concentration of 50 to ap essay questions 70 mg per dL per hour.12. More rapid correction of hyperglycemia should be avoided because it may increase the risk of cerebral edema. This dreaded treatment complication occurs in approximately 1 percent of children with diabetic ketoacidosis.5 The typical presentation is onset of headache and decreased mental status occurring several hours after the start of treatment. Cerebral edema is associated with a mortality rate of up to 70 percent.15. When a blood glucose concentration of 250 mg per footnoting dL has been achieved, the continuous or hourly insulin dosage can be reduced to literature ap essay 0.05 unit per kg per hour.

The insulin and in introduction of extended essay fluid regimens are continued until ketoacidosis is literature questions controlled. This requires the achievement of at least two of footnoting these acid-base parameters: a serum bicarbonate concentration of greater than 18 mEq per L, a venous pH of 7.3 or greater and an anion gap of less than 14 mEq per L. Although the typical potassium deficit in diabetic ketoacidosis is 500 to 700 mEq (500 to 700 mmol), most patients are hyperkalemic at literature ap essay questions the time of diagnosis because of the write an essay on the, effects of insulinopenia, hyperosmolality and acidemia.4 During rehydration and insulin therapies for diabetic ketoacidosis, the serum potassium concentration typically declines rapidly as potassium reenters the intracellular compartment. One protocol entails using insulin and intravenous fluids until the serum potassium concentration is less than 5.5 mEq per L (5.5 mmol per L). At this time, potassium chloride is added to intravenous fluids in the amount of literature ap essay questions 20 to 40 mEq per L. The exact amount of potassium that is administered depends on the serum potassium concentration.

When the serum potassium level is less than 3.3 mEq per L (3.3 mmol per L), the administration of 40 mEq per what in introduction essay L of questions potassium is appropriate. If the serum potassium is greater than 3.3 mEq per L but less than 5.5 mEq per L, 20 to what to include in introduction of extended essay 30 mEq per L of potassium can be administered. Questions. The goal is to maintain the write on the of research, serum potassium concentration in the range of 4 to literature ap essay questions 5 mEq per L (4 to 5 mmol per L).1 , 2 , 6. In general, supplemental bicarbonate therapy is no longer recommended for patients with diabetic ketoacidosis, because the plasma bicarbonate concentration increases with insulin therapy.1 , 4 , 8 , 16 , 17 Insulin administration inhibits ongoing lipolysis and ketone production and also promotes the addition, regeneration of bicarbonate. Retrospective reviews and literature prospective randomized studies have failed to identify changes in morbidity or mortality with sodium bicarbonate therapy in patients who presented with a pH of 6.9 to 7.1. Therefore, the use of bicarbonate in a patient with a pH greater than 7.0 is what in introduction not recommended. Furthermore, bicarbonate therapy carries some risks, including hypokalemia with overly rapid administration, paradoxic cerebrospinal fluid acidosis and hypoxia.6 , 15 , 17. Some authorities, however, recommend bicarbonate administration when the pH is less than 7.0, for literature questions, the purpose of treating the possible adverse hemodynamic effects of to include in introduction of extended essay profound acidemia.

If bicarbonate is used, it should be given as a nearly isotonic solution, which can be approximated by the addition of one ampule of sodium bicarbonate in 300 mL of sterile water. Literature Ap Essay Questions. The bicarbonate solution is administered over a one-hour period.1 , 2 , 8. A small percentage of patients who have diabetic ketoacidosis present with metabolic acidosis and a normal anion gap. Therefore, they have fewer ketones available for the regeneration of bicarbonate during insulin administration.18 Bicarbonate therapy may be warranted in this subset of patients. Osmotic diuresis leads to increased urinary phosphate losses.

During insulin therapy, phosphate reenters the newman, intracellular compartment, leading to mild to moderate reductions in the serum phosphate concentration. Adverse complications of hypophosphatemia are uncommon and occur primarily in patients with severe hypophosphatemia (a serum phosphate concentration of less than 1.0 mg per dL [0.32 mmol per L]). Prospective studies have indicated no clinical benefit for phosphate replacement in the treatment of literature ap essay questions diabetic ketoacidosis, and excessive phosphate replacement may contribute to newman essay doctrine hypocalcemia and soft tissue metastatic calcification.19 #x2013; 21 Although the replacement of phosphate per se is not routinely recommended, it may be useful to replace some potassium as potassium phosphate. One protocol is to administer two thirds of the potassium as potassium chloride and one third as potassium phosphate. The use of phosphate for this purpose reduces the chloride load that might contribute to literature ap essay questions hyperchloremic acidosis and decreases the an essay, likelihood that the patient will develop severe hypophosphatemia during insulin therapy.

When diabetic ketoacidosis has been controlled, subcutaneous insulin therapy can be started. The half-life of regular insulin is less than 10 minutes. Therefore, to avoid relapse of diabetic ketoacidosis, the first subcutaneous dose of regular insulin should be given at least one hour before intravenous insulin is literature ap essay questions discontinued.1 , 22 A protocol for what of extended, the administration of subcutaneous insulin is included in Figure 2 . In patients who are unable to questions eat, 5 percent dextrose in hypotonic saline solution is about continued at a rate of literature questions 100 to 200 mL per hour. Blood glucose levels are monitored every four hours, and regular insulin is given subcutaneously every four hours using a sliding scale ( Figure 2 ). When patients are able to eat, multidose subcutaneous therapy with both regular (short-acting) and intermediate-acting insulin may be given. In patients with newly diagnosed diabetes, an initial total insulin dosage of 0.6 to 0.7 unit per kg per day is usually adequate to achieve metabolic control. A typical regimen is two thirds of the total daily dosage before breakfast and one third of the total daily dosage before dinner, with the insulin doses consisting of two-thirds NPH (intermediate-acting) insulin and one-third regular (short-acting) insulin. Patients with known diabetes can typically be given the newman development doctrine, dosage they were receiving before the onset of diabetic ketoacidosis. Symptomatic cerebral edema occurs primarily in pediatric patients, particularly those with newly diagnosed diabetes. No single factor predictive for ap essay questions, cerebral edema has yet been identified.

As noted previously, however, overly rapid rehydration or overcorrection of hyperglycemia appears to increase the risk of cerebral edema. Onset of headache or mental status changes during therapy should lead to consideration of this complication. Intravenous mannitol in a dosage of 1 to 2 g per kg given over 15 minutes is the essay the summer, mainstay of ap essay questions therapy. Write On The Of Research. Prompt involvement of a critical care specialist is literature prudent. Adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a rare but potentially fatal complication of the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis.23 Excessive crystalloid infusion favors the development of pulmonary edema, even in the presence of normal cardiac function.

Patients with an increased alveolar to arterial oxygen gradient (AaO2) and patients with pulmonary rales on physical examination may be at increased risk for ARDS. Essay Development Doctrine. Monitoring of oxygen saturation with pulse oximetry may assist in the management of such patients. Hyperchloremic metabolic acidosis with a normal anion gap typically persists after the resolution of ketonemia. This acidosis has no adverse clinical effects and is gradually corrected over the subsequent 24 to literature questions 48 hours by enhanced renal acid excretion.8 , 18 The severity of hyperchloremia can be aggravated by excessive chloride administration in write an essay on the, hydration fluids. Resource Utilization in literature, Diabetic Ketoacidosis. No randomized prospective studies have evaluated the optimal site of care for the summer season, patients with diabetic ketoacidosis.

The response to initial therapy in the emergency department can be used as a guideline for literature, choosing the most appropriate hospital site (i.e., intensive care unit, step-down unit, general medical ward) for further care. Admission to an essay fundamentals of research a step-down or intensive care unit should be considered for patients with hypotension or oliguria refractory to questions initial rehydration and for patients with mental obtundation or coma with hyperosmolality (total osmolality of greater than 330 mOsm per kg of water). Most patients can be treated in step-down units or on general medical wards in an essay, which staff members have been trained in on-site blood glucose monitoring and continuous intravenous insulin administration. Milder forms of diabetic ketoacidosis can be treated in the emergency department using the same treatment guidelines described in this review. Successful outpatient therapy requires the absence of severe intercurrent illness, an alert patient who is able to resume oral intake and the presence of mild diabetic ketoacidosis (pH of literature ap essay greater than 7.2 and a plasma bicarbonate concentration of about the summer season greater than 10 mEq per L).24. With the use of standardized written treatment guidelines and flow sheets for monitoring therapeutic response, the mortality rate for patients with diabetic ketoacidosis is now less than 5 percent.25 Most deaths occur in elderly patients who have concomitant or intercurrent life-threatening illnesses.1 #x2013; 4 , 6 Similar outcomes for the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis have been observed in ap essay questions, both community and training hospitals. These outcomes have not been altered by the specialty of the primary treating physicians (e.g., family practice, internal medicine, endocrinology), as long as they adhere to an established guideline and protocol.26. An educational program should include sick-day management instructions (i.e., for any illness that alters routine care), including the essay, use of short-acting insulin, blood glucose and ap essay questions urinary ketone monitoring, and the use of a liquid diet containing carbohydrates and addition words for essay salt. Patients should not discontinue insulin therapy when they are ill, and they should contact their physician early in literature ap essay, the course of illness. About Season. Indications for hospitalization include greater than 5 percent loss of body weight, respiration rate of greater than 35 per minute, intractable elevation of blood glucose concentrations, change in mental status, uncontrolled fever and questions unresolved nausea and vomiting.

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Includes: Immediate access to this issue CME credits in this issue. Access This Article. ABBAS E. KITABCHI, PH.D., M.D., is professor of medicine and biochemistry and chief of the endocrinology and metabolism division of the Department of ap essay questions Medicine at what essay the University of Tennessee, Memphis, College of Medicine. Dr. Kitabchi received his doctoral degree in medical sciences from the questions, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, where he also earned a medical degree at the College of Medicine. He received fellowship training in write an essay on the of research, endocrinology at ap essay questions the University of Washington, Seattle. . BARRY M. WALL, M.D., is associate chief of the nephrology section at the Veteran Affairs Medical Center, Memphis. He is also associate professor of medicine at the University of Tennessee, Memphis, College of footnoting Medicine, where he attended medical school and completed residency training. Dr. Literature Questions. Wall received fellowship training at the University of Alabama, Birmington. Address correspondence to Abbas E. Kitabchi, Ph.D., M.D., Division of Endocrinology/Department of footnoting Medicine, University of Tennessee, Memphis, College of Medicine, 951 Court Ave., Room 335M, Memphis, TN 38163.

Reprints are not available from the authors . Dr. Kitabchi is a member of the speakers' bureaus of the following companies, and has received honorariums from them: Merck Co., SmithKline Beecham Pharmaceuticals, Parke-Davis, Eli Lilly and ap essay questions Company, Knoll Laboratories, and Novo Nordisk Pharmaceuticals, Inc . 1. Kitabchi AE, Wall BM. Diabetic ketoacidosis. Med Clin North Am . 1995;79:9#x2013;37. . 2. Umpierrez GE, Khajavi M, Kitabchi AE. Review: diabetic ketoacidosis and hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic syndrome. Am J Med Sci . 1996;311:225#x2013;33. 3. What To Include Of Extended. Umpierrez GE, Kelly JP, Navarrete JE, Casals MM, Kitabchi AE. Hyperglycemic crises in urban blacks.

Arch Intern Med . Questions. 1997;157:669#x2013;75. 4. Ennis ED, Stahl EJ, Kreisberg RA. Diabetic ketoacidosis. In: Porte D Jr, Sherwin RS, eds. Footnoting. Ellenberg Rifkin's Diabetes mellitus. 5th ed.

Stamford, Conn.: Appleton Lange, 1997;827#x2013;44. 5. Rosenbloom AL, Hanas R. Diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA): treatment guidelines. Clin Pediatr [Phila] . 1996;35:261#x2013;6. 6. Kitabchi AE, Fisher JN, Murphy MB, Rumbak MJ. Diabetic ketoacidosis and the hyperglycemic hyperosmolar nonketotic state. In: Kahn CR, Weir GC, eds.

Joslin's Diabetes mellitus. 13th ed. Literature. Baltimore: Williams Wilkins, 1994:738#x2013;70. 7. Zammit VA. Essay. Regulation of ketone body metabolism: a cellular perspective. Diabetes Rev . 1994;2:132#x2013;5.

8. DeFronzo RA, Matsuda M, Barret EJ. Diabetic ketoacidosis. A combined metabolic-nephrologic approach to questions therapy. Diabetes Rev . 1994;2:209#x2013;38. 9. What In Introduction Of Extended Essay. Waldhausl W, Kleinberger G, Korn A, Dudczak R, Bratusch-Marrain P, Nowotny P. Severe hyperglycemia: effects of rehydration on endocrine derangements and blood glucose concentration. Diabetes . 1979;28:577#x2013;84. 10. Adrogue HJ, Barrero J, Eknoyan G. Salutary effects of questions modest fluid replacement in footnoting, the treatment of adults with diabetic ketoacidosis.

Use in patients without extreme volume deficit. JAMA . 1989;262:2108#x2013;13. 11. Alberti KG, Hockaday TD, Turner RC. Small doses of ap essay questions intramuscular insulin in addition words for essay, the treatment of diabetic #x201c;coma. Lancet . 1973;2(7828):515#x2013;22. 12. Kitabchi AE, Young R, Sacks H, Morris L. Diabetic ketoacidosis: reappraisal of therapeutic approach. Ap Essay. Annu Rev Med . 1979;30:339#x2013;57. 13. Kitabchi AE, Ayyagari V, Guerra SM.

The efficacy of low-dose versus conventional therapy of insulin for newman essay development, treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. Ann Intern Med . 1976;84:633#x2013;8. 14. Kitabchi AE, Fisher JN. Insulin therapy of diabetic ketoacidosis: physiologic versus pharmacologic doses of insulin and ap essay their routes of what in introduction administration. In: Brownlee M, ed.

Handbook of diabetes mellitus. New York: Garland STPM, 1981:95#x2013;149. 15. Lever E, Jaspan JB. Sodium bicarbonate therapy in severe diabetic ketoacidosis. Literature Ap Essay Questions. Am J Med . 1983;75:263#x2013;8. 16. Barnes HV, Cohen RD, Kitabchi AE, Murphy MB. When is bicarbonate appropriate in treating metabolic acidosis including diabetic ketoacidosis? In: Gitnick G, ed. Debates in medicine.

Chicago: Year Book Medical, 1988:200#x2013;33. 17. Morris LR, Murphy MB, Kitabchi AE. Doctrine. Bicarbonate therapy in severe diabetic ketoacidosis. Ap Essay Questions. Ann Intern Med . 1986;105:836#x2013;40. 18. Oh MS, Carroll HJ, Uribarri J. Mechanism of normochloremic and hyperchloremic acidosis in diabetic ketoacidosis. Democracy Government. Nephron . 1990;54:1#x2013;6. 19. Wilson HK, Keuer SP, Lea AS, Boyd AE 3d, Eknoyan G. Phosphate therapy in diabetic ketoacidosis.

Arch Intern Med . 1982;142:517#x2013;20. 20. Ap Essay. Fisher JN, Kitabchi AE. A randomized study of phosphate therapy in about, the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab . 1983;57:177#x2013;80. 21. Zipf WB, Bacon GE, Spencer ML, Kelch RP, Hopwood NJ, Hawker CD.

Hypocalcemia, hypomagnesemia, and transient hypoparathyroidism during therapy with potassium phosphate in diabetic ketoacidosis. Questions. Diabetes Care . 1979;2:265#x2013;8. 22. Kitabchi AE, Rumbak M. The management of diabetic emergencies. Hosp Pract [Off Ed] . 1989;24:129#x2013;33. 23.

Carrol P, Matz R. Adult respiratory distress syndrome complicating severely uncontrolled diabetes mellitus: report of nine cases and a review of the essay about season, literature. Diabetes Care . 1982;5:574#x2013;80. 24. Bonadio WA. Pediatric diabetic ketoacidosis: pathophysiology and potential for outpatient management of questions selected children. Pediatr Emerg Care . 1992;8:287#x2013;90. 25.

Fishbein HA. Diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar nonketotic coma, lactic acidosis and hyperglycemia. On The. In: National Diabetes Data Group. Ap Essay. Diabetes in America. Words. Bethesda, Md.: U.S. Literature Questions. Dept of Health and essay development doctrine Human Services, Public Health Service, National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Arthritis, Diabetes, and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 1985; NIH publication no. 85-1468.

26. Hamburger S, Barjenbruch P, Soffer A. Treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis by internists and family physicians: a comparative study. J Fam Pract . 1982;14:719#x2013;22. This article is literature one in a series developed in cooperation with the American Diabetes Association. Guest editors of the series are Bruce Zimmerman, M.D., and Richard Kahn, Ph.D., American Diabetes Association, Alexandria, Va . Copyright © 1999 by the American Academy of Family Physicians. This content is owned by the AAFP. A person viewing it online may make one printout of the material and may use that printout only for his or her personal, non-commercial reference. This material may not otherwise be downloaded, copied, printed, stored, transmitted or reproduced in any medium, whether now known or later invented, except as authorized in writing by the AAFP. Of Extended. Contact afpserv@aafp.org for copyright questions and/or permission requests. This page will be removed from literature ap essay questions your Favorites Links.

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5 Persuasive Writing Essay Prompts About Health Care Reform. Healthcare is a hot button issue in politics today. Since Obama's first term as President, the country has been debating how best to ap essay, provide medical coverage for the population of the United States and how best to keep the costs of this coverage down. If you want to teach your kids how to write - especially how to write persuasively - then you need engaging, interesting topics for them to write about. Healthcare reform is such a hot, current topic that kids are going to an essay, have opinions about it. It's a great basis for a persuasive essay writing task.

If you read these tips on literature questions persuasive writing prompts, you'll know that it's important for students to addition, have some facts on which to base their arguments. Questions? When it comes to civics education, divisive political issues, like healthcare reform, can spur arguments based more on passion and opinion than facts, so it helps to assign some reading before your students write. It also helps to do some character education beforehand, to make sure students have the attitudes necessary to deal with these topics in a mature fashion. Time Magazine published an excellent article in February by Steven Brill - Bitter Pill: Why Medical Bills Are Killing Us. In the newman article, Brill does some good old fashioned journalism to ap essay, attack one of the root problems in healthcare - why are the bills so high? The article is government, a bit long, and you may not want to assign the entire thing to your students. It would, however, be an ap essay questions excellent idea to excerpt a couple of in introduction of extended essay pages to accompany each of the prompts that you give to your students. Five Topics for Students to questions, Write Persuasive Essays About. Newman Development Doctrine? Each of the topics and tasks below were inspired by the Steven Brill article above. I highly suggest that you , the teacher, read the ap essay questions article so that you've got a firm grasp on the issues and some of the addition words for essay facts. Then, you can decide what (if anything) you want your students to read to inform their own opinions.

Should there be limits on the prices drugmakers and hospitals charge for certain drugs? New, sophisticated drugs are necessary to treat diseases like cancer. These drugs often cost several thousand dollars per treatment straight from the questions manufacturer, and hospitals will often mark the price of these drugs up even further when they bill patients. About The Summer Season? The patient usually has little to ap essay, no choice in the matter, and there's no competition to help drive down prices as would happen in a normal market. Season? Drug makers, on the other hand, argue that high prices are necessary to fund research and literature ap essay, development. Brill has some interesting numbers to challenge that assertion, and you'll want to read his findings before you make up your mind. However, there's a fundamental question about free market economics, liberty, and fairness involved in words for essay, this question. Should there be limits on the salaries of hospital administrators? One of Brill's findings is that hospital CEOs and other administrators are paid outsized salaries - often in the high six figures or even seven figures.

In the case of hospitals attached to ap essay questions, research universities, the hospital administrator is often paid more than the form essay university president. This is similar in some ways to the salary arms race going on in college sports, where head football coaches are paid exorbitant salaries. In the scheme of things, reducing administrative salaries probably won't bring costs down much. But it just seems like a good idea. It's also interesting to note that many of these hospitals are not-for-profit organizations.

Should hospital fees be tied directly to the cost of providing a particular service? A constant theme of Brill's article is the chargemaster list. It's a list of prices for particular services and items administered at a hospital, and literature, it's the basis for all prices charged to individuals and to insurance companies. These lists have no logical connection to the actual cost of services, and they often produce extremely high mark-ups (1000% to 2000%) over the actual cost. Of Extended? There's an alternative method, which Medicare uses. When the government reimburses hospitals for treating medicare patients, it draws on ap essay a calculated list of what it actually costs to provide a service.

These prices are drastically lower than the ones on the chargemaster. An interesting reform might be to tie the prices of for essay all fees to this Medicare reimbursement list, and then allow a certain mark-up for the hospitals to make a profit. Should uninsured individuals pay more for the same services? A peculiar problem of the American healthcare system is that uninsured (or underinsured) people face steep charges if they go to the hospital. These fees are based on the previously mentioned, outrageously over-priced chargemaster. Insurance companies negotiate lower prices, and the government insists on a particular schedule of literature fees when it pays for what to include in introduction Medicare and Medicaid patients. Yet individuals who have no insurance are at the mercy of the literature hospital, and they must pay whatever the essay about season hospital charges them. To make matters worse, people often don't know how much they're going to be charged until after they've been treated. This begs the question of whether it's fair for some people to pay far more for healthcare than those who are covered by insurance. Literature Ap Essay Questions? Should there be limits on malpractice lawsuits (i.e. tort reform)? On the conservative side, one argument about healthcare is that prices are so high because hospitals and the summer, doctors have to be concerned with malpractice lawsuits.

One wrong step and they're on the line for millions of dollars of liability. If they don't exhaust every option, then they might even be on the hook for that. Brill suggests that this leads to massive over-testing, and doctors are ordering all kinds of tests (like CT Scans) that aren't really necessary. By tightening the rules for proving malpractice - i.e. requiring true negligence on the part of the doctor - you free hospitals from the need to run excessive tests to simply cover their butts. This could help bring down spending significantly, although the counter argument is ap essay questions, that this could lead to inferior care. 10 Persuasive Writing Tasks and Prompts About Politics and Government. by Brian Rock 1. 10 Persuasive Writing Prompts for essay season 3rd Graders. by Brian Rock 3. by Virginia Kearney 1. Four Different Types of Writing Styles: Expository, Descriptive, Persuasive, and Narrative. by Syed Hunbbel Meer 195.

How to ap essay questions, Write a Reflective Essay with Sample Essays. by Virginia Kearney 21. Words? How to Write a Summary, Analysis, and Response Essay Paper With Examples. by Virginia Kearney 56. 100 Problem Solution Essay Topics with Sample Essays. by Virginia Kearney 42. Pls can you show me your persuasive writing about health system. i want learn best way of english writing. Copyright 2017 HubPages Inc. and respective owners. Other product and literature ap essay questions, company names shown may be trademarks of essay doctrine their respective owners. Literature Ap Essay? HubPages ® is a registered Service Mark of HubPages, Inc.

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Washington’s Farewell Address 1796. Friends and Citizens: The period for a new election of a citizen to administer the executive government of the United States being not far distant, and the time actually arrived when your thoughts must be employed in designating the person who is to be clothed with that important trust, it appears to me proper, especially as it may conduce to a more distinct expression of the public voice, that I should now apprise you of the literature ap essay questions resolution I have formed, to decline being considered among the number of those out of whom a choice is to be made. I beg you, at the same time, to do me the justice to be assured that this resolution has not been taken without a strict regard to all the newman essay doctrine considerations appertaining to the relation which binds a dutiful citizen to his country; and literature ap essay questions, that in withdrawing the tender of service, which silence in my situation might imply, I am influenced by no diminution of zeal for your future interest, no deficiency of grateful respect for doctrine your past kindness, but am supported by literature, a full conviction that the addition for essay step is compatible with both. The acceptance of, and continuance hitherto in, the questions office to which your suffrages have twice called me have been a uniform sacrifice of addition words inclination to the opinion of literature questions duty and to a deference for what appeared to be your desire. I constantly hoped that it would have been much earlier in my power, consistently with motives which I was not at liberty to disregard, to return to to include in introduction essay that retirement from literature ap essay which I had been reluctantly drawn. The strength of newman doctrine my inclination to literature do this, previous to the last election, had even led to the preparation of an address to declare it to you; but mature reflection on the then perplexed and on the, critical posture of our affairs with foreign nations, and the unanimous advice of persons entitled to my confidence, impelled me to abandon the idea. I rejoice that the state of your concerns, external as well as internal, no longer renders the pursuit of literature inclination incompatible with the sentiment of duty or propriety, and am persuaded, whatever partiality may be retained for my services, that, in the present circumstances of our country, you will not disapprove my determination to retire. The impressions with which I first undertook the development doctrine arduous trust were explained on the proper occasion. In the discharge of this trust, I will only say that I have, with good intentions, contributed towards the organization and administration of the government the best exertions of which a very fallible judgment was capable. Not unconscious in the outset of the inferiority of my qualifications, experience in my own eyes, perhaps still more in the eyes of others, has strengthened the motives to diffidence of ap essay questions myself; and every day the increasing weight of years admonishes me more and more that the shade of retirement is as necessary to me as it will be welcome.

Satisfied that if any circumstances have given peculiar value to my services, they were temporary, I have the consolation to believe that, while choice and footnoting an essay, prudence invite me to quit the political scene, patriotism does not forbid it. In looking forward to the moment which is intended to terminate the career of my public life, my feelings do not permit me to suspend the literature questions deep acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude which I owe to my beloved country for the many honors it has conferred upon me; still more for for essay the steadfast confidence with which it has supported me; and for the opportunities I have thence enjoyed of manifesting my inviolable attachment, by services faithful and persevering, though in usefulness unequal to literature questions my zeal. If benefits have resulted to our country from these services, let it always be remembered to your praise, and as an instructive example in our annals, that under circumstances in for essay, which the passions, agitated in every direction, were liable to mislead, amidst appearances sometimes dubious, vicissitudes of fortune often discouraging, in situations in which not unfrequently want of success has countenanced the literature questions spirit of criticism, the constancy of your support was the essential prop of the efforts, and a guarantee of the essay the summer plans by which they were effected. Questions. Profoundly penetrated with this idea, I shall carry it with me to my grave, as a strong incitement to democracy essay unceasing vows that heaven may continue to literature questions you the choicest tokens of its beneficence; that your union and words for essay, brotherly affection may be perpetual; that the free Constitution, which is the work of your hands, may be sacredly maintained; that its administration in literature ap essay, every department may be stamped with wisdom and virtue; that, in fine, the happiness of the people of these States, under the auspices of liberty, may be made complete by so careful a preservation and so prudent a use of this blessing as will acquire to an essay fundamentals of research them the glory of recommending it to the applause, the affection, and adoption of every nation which is ap essay yet a stranger to it. Here, perhaps, I ought to stop. But a solicitude for your welfare, which cannot end but with my life, and footnoting, the apprehension of literature ap essay questions danger, natural to that solicitude, urge me, on an occasion like the present, to democracy form essay offer to your solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, some sentiments which are the result of much reflection, of no inconsiderable observation, and which appear to me all-important to the permanency of your felicity as a people.

These will be offered to you with the literature ap essay questions more freedom, as you can only see in them the disinterested warnings of a parting friend, who can possibly have no personal motive to bias his counsel. Nor can I forget, as an encouragement to it, your indulgent reception of my sentiments on a former and not dissimilar occasion. Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of addition for essay your hearts, no recommendation of ap essay mine is write an essay fundamentals of research necessary to questions fortify or confirm the attachment. The unity of government which constitutes you one people is also now dear to you. It is an essay justly so, for it is a main pillar in the edifice of your real independence, the support of your tranquility at home, your peace abroad; of your safety; of ap essay questions your prosperity; of that very liberty which you so highly prize. But as it is easy to to include in introduction essay foresee that, from different causes and from different quarters, much pains will be taken, many artifices employed to weaken in your minds the conviction of this truth; as this is the point in your political fortress against which the batteries of internal and external enemies will be most constantly and actively (though often covertly and insidiously) directed, it is of infinite moment that you should properly estimate the literature ap essay questions immense value of your national union to your collective and individual happiness; that you should cherish a cordial, habitual, and immovable attachment to it; accustoming yourselves to think and speak of it as of the palladium of democracy form your political safety and prosperity; watching for ap essay its preservation with jealous anxiety; discountenancing whatever may suggest even a suspicion that it can in any event be abandoned; and indignantly frowning upon the first dawning of every attempt to essay season alienate any portion of our country from the rest, or to enfeeble the literature ap essay questions sacred ties which now link together the various parts.

For this you have every inducement of sympathy and write fundamentals of research, interest. Citizens, by birth or choice, of a common country, that country has a right to concentrate your affections. The name of American, which belongs to you in your national capacity, must always exalt the just pride of patriotism more than any appellation derived from local discriminations. With slight shades of difference, you have the same religion, manners, habits, and political principles. You have in a common cause fought and triumphed together; the independence and liberty you possess are the work of literature questions joint counsels, and joint efforts of common dangers, sufferings, and successes. But these considerations, however powerfully they address themselves to your sensibility, are greatly outweighed by those which apply more immediately to your interest. Here every portion of write on the fundamentals our country finds the most commanding motives for literature ap essay questions carefully guarding and preserving the union of the whole. The North, in an unrestrained intercourse with the South, protected by the equal laws of a common government, finds in the productions of the latter great additional resources of maritime and commercial enterprise and precious materials of about season manufacturing industry. The South, in the same intercourse, benefiting by the agency of the North, sees its agriculture grow and its commerce expand. Turning partly into literature, its own channels the democracy form seamen of the North, it finds its particular navigation invigorated; and, while it contributes, in different ways, to nourish and increase the general mass of the literature national navigation, it looks forward to the protection of a maritime strength, to which itself is what to include in introduction of extended essay unequally adapted.

The East, in a like intercourse with the West, already finds, and in the progressive improvement of interior communications by ap essay questions, land and water, will more and more find a valuable vent for newman essay the commodities which it brings from abroad, or manufactures at home. The West derives from the East supplies requisite to literature ap essay its growth and comfort, and, what is democracy form government essay perhaps of still greater consequence, it must of necessity owe the secure enjoyment of indispensable outlets for its own productions to the weight, influence, and the future maritime strength of the Atlantic side of the Union, directed by an indissoluble community of interest as one nation. Any other tenure by which the West can hold this essential advantage, whether derived from its own separate strength, or from an apostate and unnatural connection with any foreign power, must be intrinsically precarious. While, then, every part of our country thus feels an questions immediate and particular interest in union, all the parts combined cannot fail to find in the united mass of means and efforts greater strength, greater resource, proportionably greater security from external danger, a less frequent interruption of what in introduction essay their peace by ap essay, foreign nations; and, what is of inestimable value, they must derive from union an footnoting exemption from those broils and wars between themselves, which so frequently afflict neighboring countries not tied together by literature, the same governments, which their own rival ships alone would be sufficient to produce, but which opposite foreign alliances, attachments, and intrigues would stimulate and embitter. Hence, likewise, they will avoid the necessity of those overgrown military establishments which, under any form of government, are inauspicious to liberty, and which are to be regarded as particularly hostile to about the summer season republican liberty. In this sense it is ap essay questions that your union ought to be considered as a main prop of your liberty, and that the love of the write an essay on the one ought to endear to you the preservation of the other. These considerations speak a persuasive language to every reflecting and virtuous mind, and exhibit the continuance of the ap essay questions Union as a primary object of patriotic desire. Is there a doubt whether a common government can embrace so large a sphere? Let experience solve it. Form. To listen to mere speculation in such a case were criminal.

We are authorized to hope that a proper organization of the whole with the auxiliary agency of governments for the respective subdivisions, will afford a happy issue to the experiment. It is questions well worth a fair and full experiment. With such powerful and obvious motives to union, affecting all parts of our country, while experience shall not have demonstrated its impracticability, there will always be reason to distrust the patriotism of those who in any quarter may endeavor to weaken its bands. In contemplating the causes which may disturb our Union, it occurs as matter of serious concern that any ground should have been furnished for characterizing parties by geographical discriminations, Northern and to include, Southern, Atlantic and Western; whence designing men may endeavor to ap essay questions excite a belief that there is a real difference of local interests and views. Form Government Essay. One of the expedients of party to acquire influence within particular districts is to misrepresent the opinions and aims of other districts.

You cannot shield yourselves too much against the jealousies and heartburnings which spring from these misrepresentations; they tend to render alien to each other those who ought to be bound together by fraternal affection. Literature Ap Essay Questions. The inhabitants of our Western country have lately had a useful lesson on this head; they have seen, in the negotiation by the Executive, and in the unanimous ratification by the Senate, of the treaty with Spain, and in the universal satisfaction at that event, throughout the United States, a decisive proof how unfounded were the suspicions propagated among them of write on the of research a policy in the General Government and in the Atlantic States unfriendly to their interests in regard to literature questions the Mississippi; they have been witnesses to the formation of two treaties, that with Great Britain, and about season, that with Spain, which secure to them everything they could desire, in respect to literature ap essay questions our foreign relations, towards confirming their prosperity. Will it not be their wisdom to rely for the preservation of these advantages on the Union by which they were procured? Will they not henceforth be deaf to those advisers, if such there are, who would sever them from their brethren and connect them with aliens? To the efficacy and addition for essay, permanency of your Union, a government for the whole is ap essay questions indispensable. No alliance, however strict, between the democracy government parts can be an questions adequate substitute; they must inevitably experience the infractions and interruptions which all alliances in all times have experienced. Sensible of this momentous truth, you have improved upon your first essay, by the adoption of in introduction a constitution of government better calculated than your former for an intimate union, and for the efficacious management of your common concerns. This government, the offspring of our own choice, uninfluenced and unawed, adopted upon literature ap essay, full investigation and mature deliberation, completely free in its principles, in newman essay development doctrine, the distribution of its powers, uniting security with energy, and containing within itself a provision for its own amendment, has a just claim to your confidence and your support. Respect for its authority, compliance with its laws, acquiescence in its measures, are duties enjoined by the fundamental maxims of true liberty.

The basis of our political systems is the right of the people to make and to alter their constitutions of government. But the Constitution which at any time exists, till changed by an explicit and authentic act of the whole people, is sacredly obligatory upon all. The very idea of the power and the right of the people to establish government presupposes the duty of every individual to obey the established government. All obstructions to the execution of the laws, all combinations and ap essay, associations, under whatever plausible character, with the real design to direct, control, counteract, or awe the regular deliberation and write on the of research, action of the constituted authorities, are destructive of this fundamental principle, and of fatal tendency. Ap Essay. They serve to organize faction, to give it an artificial and extraordinary force; to put, in what to include in introduction, the place of the delegated will of the nation the will of a party, often a small but artful and enterprising minority of the community; and, according to the alternate triumphs of ap essay questions different parties, to make the essay about public administration the questions mirror of the addition words ill-concerted and incongruous projects of faction, rather than the ap essay organ of democracy government essay consistent and literature ap essay questions, wholesome plans digested by form government essay, common counsels and modified by mutual interests. However combinations or associations of the ap essay above description may now and then answer popular ends, they are likely, in the course of time and things, to an essay become potent engines, by which cunning, ambitious, and literature questions, unprincipled men will be enabled to subvert the footnoting power of the literature ap essay people and to usurp for themselves the reins of government, destroying afterwards the very engines which have lifted them to unjust dominion. Towards the democracy government essay preservation of your government, and literature questions, the permanency of your present happy state, it is requisite, not only that you steadily discountenance irregular oppositions to its acknowledged authority, but also that you resist with care the to include essay spirit of innovation upon its principles, however specious the pretexts. One method of assault may be to effect, in the forms of the Constitution, alterations which will impair the energy of the system, and thus to ap essay undermine what cannot be directly overthrown.

In all the changes to which you may be invited, remember that time and habit are at addition words least as necessary to fix the true character of governments as of ap essay questions other human institutions; that experience is the surest standard by which to test the for essay real tendency of the existing constitution of a country; that facility in changes, upon the credit of mere hypothesis and opinion, exposes to perpetual change, from the endless variety of hypothesis and opinion; and remember, especially, that for the efficient management of your common interests, in a country so extensive as ours, a government of as much vigor as is consistent with the ap essay questions perfect security of liberty is democracy form government indispensable. Liberty itself will find in such a government, with powers properly distributed and adjusted, its surest guardian. It is, indeed, little else than a name, where the government is too feeble to withstand the enterprises of faction, to confine each member of the society within the limits prescribed by the laws, and to maintain all in the secure and tranquil enjoyment of the rights of person and property. I have already intimated to you the literature ap essay questions danger of parties in the State, with particular reference to the founding of them on geographical discriminations. Let me now take a more comprehensive view, and warn you in the most solemn manner against the baneful effects of the spirit of party generally. This spirit, unfortunately, is inseparable from our nature, having its root in the strongest passions of the human mind. It exists under different shapes in all governments, more or less stifled, controlled, or repressed; but, in those of the popular form, it is seen in its greatest rankness, and is truly their worst enemy. The alternate domination of one faction over another, sharpened by the spirit of footnoting revenge, natural to party dissension, which in different ages and countries has perpetrated the most horrid enormities, is itself a frightful despotism. Literature. But this leads at addition length to literature ap essay a more formal and permanent despotism.

The disorders and miseries which result gradually incline the minds of men to seek security and repose in essay development, the absolute power of an individual; and sooner or later the questions chief of some prevailing faction, more able or more fortunate than his competitors, turns this disposition to the purposes of his own elevation, on the ruins of public liberty. Without looking forward to an extremity of this kind (which nevertheless ought not to write an essay on the be entirely out of sight), the literature ap essay questions common and continual mischiefs of the spirit of party are sufficient to make it the interest and duty of a wise people to discourage and restrain it. It serves always to distract the public councils and enfeeble the public administration. It agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms, kindles the animosity of one part against season, another, foments occasionally riot and insurrection. Literature Ap Essay. It opens the door to foreign influence and corruption, which finds a facilitated access to the government itself through the channels of party passions.

Thus the policy and the will of one country are subjected to the policy and will of another. There is an opinion that parties in free countries are useful checks upon the administration of the government and addition for essay, serve to keep alive the spirit of liberty. Literature. This within certain limits is essay about the summer probably true; and in governments of a monarchical cast, patriotism may look with indulgence, if not with favor, upon the spirit of party. But in those of the popular character, in governments purely elective, it is a spirit not to be encouraged. From their natural tendency, it is certain there will always be enough of that spirit for ap essay every salutary purpose. And there being constant danger of excess, the effort ought to be by force of public opinion, to mitigate and assuage it. A fire not to be quenched, it demands a uniform vigilance to prevent its bursting into a flame, lest, instead of warming, it should consume. It is important, likewise, that the habits of thinking in words for essay, a free country should inspire caution in those entrusted with its administration, to confine themselves within their respective constitutional spheres, avoiding in the exercise of the powers of one department to encroach upon another.

The spirit of encroachment tends to consolidate the powers of all the departments in one, and ap essay, thus to create, whatever the form of government, a real despotism. A just estimate of that love of power, and proneness to abuse it, which predominates in the human heart, is what to include in introduction sufficient to questions satisfy us of the truth of this position. The necessity of reciprocal checks in for essay, the exercise of political power, by dividing and distributing it into different depositaries, and constituting each the ap essay guardian of the public weal against invasions by the others, has been evinced by experiments ancient and modern; some of them in our country and under our own eyes. To preserve them must be as necessary as to form institute them. If, in literature ap essay, the opinion of the write an essay on the fundamentals people, the distribution or modification of the constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by an amendment in the way which the Constitution designates. But let there be no change by usurpation; for though this, in questions, one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the customary weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly overbalance in permanent evil any partial or transient benefit, which the use can at any time yield. Of all the essay the summer dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor to subvert these great pillars of human happiness, these firmest props of the duties of men and citizens. The mere politician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect and to cherish them.

A volume could not trace all their connections with private and public felicity. Let it simply be asked: Where is the security for property, for reputation, for life, if the literature sense of religious obligation desert the oaths which are the democracy form government instruments of investigation in courts of justice ? And let us with caution indulge the supposition that morality can be maintained without religion. Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education on minds of peculiar structure, reason and experience both forbid us to literature questions expect that national morality can prevail in exclusion of write an essay on the of research religious principle. It is substantially true that virtue or morality is a necessary spring of popular government. The rule, indeed, extends with more or less force to ap essay questions every species of free government. Who that is a sincere friend to footnoting it can look with indifference upon attempts to shake the foundation of the fabric? Promote then, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened. As a very important source of strength and security, cherish public credit.

One method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as possible, avoiding occasions of expense by cultivating peace, but remembering also that timely disbursements to prepare for danger frequently prevent much greater disbursements to repel it, avoiding likewise the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning occasions of expense, but by vigorous exertion in time of ap essay peace to discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may have occasioned, not ungenerously throwing upon posterity the burden which we ourselves ought to bear. The execution of form government essay these maxims belongs to your representatives, but it is necessary that public opinion should co-operate. To facilitate to ap essay them the performance of their duty, it is essential that you should practically bear in mind that towards the payment of debts there must be revenue; that to newman essay development have revenue there must be taxes; that no taxes can be devised which are not more or less inconvenient and unpleasant; that the intrinsic embarrassment, inseparable from the questions selection of the proper objects (which is always a choice of difficulties), ought to be a decisive motive for a candid construction of the conduct of the government in making it, and for a spirit of acquiescence in the measures for obtaining revenue, which the public exigencies may at any time dictate. Observe good faith and justice towards all nations; cultivate peace and harmony with all. What In Introduction. Religion and morality enjoin this conduct; and can it be, that good policy does not equally enjoin it – It will be worthy of a free, enlightened, and at no distant period, a great nation, to give to mankind the magnanimous and too novel example of a people always guided by an exalted justice and literature ap essay questions, benevolence. Who can doubt that, in to include in introduction essay, the course of time and things, the ap essay questions fruits of such a plan would richly repay any temporary advantages which might be lost by a steady adherence to it ? Can it be that Providence has not connected the permanent felicity of a nation with its virtue ? The experiment, at least, is recommended by every sentiment which ennobles human nature.

Alas! is fundamentals of research it rendered impossible by its vices? In the ap essay questions execution of such a plan, nothing is more essential than that permanent, inveterate antipathies against particular nations, and passionate attachments for others, should be excluded; and that, in place of them, just and amicable feelings towards all should be cultivated. The nation which indulges towards another a habitual hatred or a habitual fondness is in some degree a slave. It is a slave to government essay its animosity or to its affection, either of which is questions sufficient to lead it astray from its duty and its interest. Antipathy in one nation against another disposes each more readily to offer insult and injury, to lay hold of slight causes of an essay umbrage, and to be haughty and intractable, when accidental or trifling occasions of dispute occur. Literature Ap Essay. Hence, frequent collisions, obstinate, envenomed, and bloody contests. The nation, prompted by in introduction, ill-will and resentment, sometimes impels to war the government, contrary to the best calculations of policy. The government sometimes participates in the national propensity, and adopts through passion what reason would reject; at other times it makes the ap essay animosity of the nation subservient to projects of hostility instigated by pride, ambition, and other sinister and newman, pernicious motives. The peace often, sometimes perhaps the liberty, of literature nations, has been the essay the summer victim. So likewise, a passionate attachment of one nation for questions another produces a variety of evils. Sympathy for the favorite nation, facilitating the illusion of an imaginary common interest in cases where no real common interest exists, and infusing into one the enmities of the other, betrays the former into a participation in the quarrels and newman doctrine, wars of the latter without adequate inducement or justification.

It leads also to concessions to the favorite nation of privileges denied to others which is apt doubly to injure the nation making the concessions; by unnecessarily parting with what ought to have been retained, and by exciting jealousy, ill-will, and a disposition to retaliate, in the parties from whom equal privileges are withheld. And it gives to ambitious, corrupted, or deluded citizens (who devote themselves to the favorite nation), facility to literature ap essay questions betray or sacrifice the interests of their own country, without odium, sometimes even with popularity; gilding, with the appearances of a virtuous sense of obligation, a commendable deference for footnoting an essay public opinion, or a laudable zeal for public good, the base or foolish compliances of ambition, corruption, or infatuation. As avenues to foreign influence in ap essay, innumerable ways, such attachments are particularly alarming to the truly enlightened and independent patriot. How many opportunities do they afford to tamper with domestic factions, to practice the arts of seduction, to mislead public opinion, to essay the summer season influence or awe the public councils. Such an attachment of a small or weak towards a great and powerful nation dooms the former to be the satellite of the literature ap essay latter. Against the what to include of extended essay insidious wiles of foreign influence (I conjure you to believe me, fellow-citizens) the jealousy of a free people ought to be constantly awake, since history and ap essay questions, experience prove that foreign influence is one of the most baneful foes of essay the summer season republican government. But that jealousy to be useful must be impartial; else it becomes the instrument of the very influence to be avoided, instead of a defense against it. Excessive partiality for one foreign nation and excessive dislike of another cause those whom they actuate to literature questions see danger only on one side, and democracy government essay, serve to literature ap essay questions veil and even second the arts of influence on fundamentals of research the other. Real patriots who may resist the intrigues of the favorite are liable to become suspected and odious, while its tools and dupes usurp the applause and confidence of the people, to surrender their interests. The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith.

Here let us stop. Europe has a set of primary interests which to us have none; or a very remote relation. Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the ap essay causes of which are essentially foreign to our concerns. Essay About Season. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in ap essay questions, us to implicate ourselves by artificial ties in the ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary combinations and collisions of her friendships or enmities. Our detached and distant situation invites and essay, enables us to pursue a different course. If we remain one people under an efficient government. the period is literature questions not far off when we may defy material injury from external annoyance; when we may take such an attitude as will cause the neutrality we may at newman any time resolve upon to be scrupulously respected; when belligerent nations, under the impossibility of making acquisitions upon us, will not lightly hazard the giving us provocation; when we may choose peace or war, as our interest, guided by literature, justice, shall counsel. Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation?

Why quit our own to newman development doctrine stand upon foreign ground? Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of questions Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in democracy form, the toils of European ambition, rivalship, interest, humor or caprice? It is our true policy to steer clear of literature ap essay permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world; so far, I mean, as we are now at liberty to do it; for let me not be understood as capable of patronizing infidelity to existing engagements. I hold the footnoting an essay maxim no less applicable to public than to private affairs, that honesty is always the best policy. Literature Questions. I repeat it, therefore, let those engagements be observed in their genuine sense. But, in my opinion, it is unnecessary and would be unwise to extend them. Taking care always to about keep ourselves by suitable establishments on literature ap essay a respectable defensive posture, we may safely trust to temporary alliances for extraordinary emergencies. Harmony, liberal intercourse with all nations, are recommended by policy, humanity, and interest. But even our commercial policy should hold an equal and impartial hand; neither seeking nor granting exclusive favors or preferences; consulting the natural course of things; diffusing and an essay on the of research, diversifying by gentle means the streams of commerce, but forcing nothing; establishing (with powers so disposed, in order to give trade a stable course, to literature ap essay define the rights of our merchants, and to enable the government to support them) conventional rules of intercourse, the best that present circumstances and mutual opinion will permit, but temporary, and liable to be from time to time abandoned or varied, as experience and circumstances shall dictate; constantly keeping in view that it is folly in one nation to look for disinterested favors from another; that it must pay with a portion of essay about the summer its independence for whatever it may accept under that character; that, by literature, such acceptance, it may place itself in the condition of having given equivalents for nominal favors, and yet of newman essay development being reproached with ingratitude for literature ap essay questions not giving more. There can be no greater error than to expect or calculate upon real favors from nation to nation. It is an illusion, which experience must cure, which a just pride ought to discard.

In offering to you, my countrymen, these counsels of an old and affectionate friend, I dare not hope they will make the strong and lasting impression I could wish; that they will control the usual current of the passions, or prevent our nation from running the course which has hitherto marked the destiny of nations. But, if I may even flatter myself that they may be productive of some partial benefit, some occasional good; that they may now and then recur to moderate the fury of party spirit, to warn against the mischiefs of foreign intrigue, to addition for essay guard against the impostures of pretended patriotism; this hope will be a full recompense for literature the solicitude for your welfare, by which they have been dictated. How far in the discharge of my official duties I have been guided by an essay, the principles which have been delineated, the public records and other evidence of my conduct must witness to you and to the world. To myself, the assurance of my own conscience is, that I have at least believed myself to be guided by them. In relation to the still subsisting war in Europe, my proclamation of the twenty-second of April, I793, is the index of my plan. Sanctioned by questions, your approving voice, and by essay, that of literature questions your representatives in both houses of footnoting an essay Congress, the spirit of that measure has continually governed me, uninfluenced by any attempts to deter or divert me from it. After deliberate examination, with the aid of the best lights I could obtain, I was well satisfied that our country, under all the circumstances of the ap essay case, had a right to take, and was bound in duty and interest to take, a neutral position.

Having taken it, I determined, as far as should depend upon me, to maintain it, with moderation, perseverance, and firmness. The considerations which respect the right to hold this conduct, it is not necessary on this occasion to words detail. I will only observe that, according to ap essay my understanding of the the summer matter, that right, so far from being denied by any of the belligerent powers, has been virtually admitted by all. The duty of holding a neutral conduct may be inferred, without anything more, from the obligation which justice and humanity impose on every nation, in cases in literature ap essay questions, which it is free to act, to maintain inviolate the relations of peace and newman, amity towards other nations. The inducements of interest for observing that conduct will best be referred to literature questions your own reflections and experience. With me, a predominant motive has been to endeavor to gain time to our country to settle and mature its yet recent institutions, and to progress without interruption to season that degree of strength and literature ap essay, consistency which is necessary to give it, humanly speaking, the command of its own fortunes. Though, in reviewing the incidents of words for essay my administration, I am unconscious of intentional error, I am nevertheless too sensible of my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also carry with me the literature questions hope that my country will never cease to view them with indulgence; and essay development, that, after forty-five years of my life dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompetent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be to the mansions of literature questions rest.

Relying on its kindness in this as in other things, and actuated by that fervent love towards it, which is so natural to a man who views in essay development, it the native soil of questions himself and his progenitors for several generations, I anticipate with pleasing expectation that retreat in which I promise myself to realize, without alloy, the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in words for essay, the midst of questions my fellow-citizens, the benign influence of good laws under a free government, the ever-favorite object of my heart, and the happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labors, and dangers. THE EXISTENCE OF GOD AND THE BEGINNING OF THE UNIVERSE. William Craig earned a doctorate in philosophy at the University of Birmingham, England, before taking a doctorate in theology from the Ludwig Maximiliens Universitat-Munchen, West Germany, at which latter institution he was for two years a Fellow of the doctrine Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung. Literature. He is currently a visiting scholar at the Universite Catholique de Louvain. He has authored various books, including The Kalam Cosmological Argument, The Cosmological Argument from Plato to Leibniz, and The Problem of Divine Foreknowledge and Future Contingents from Aristotle to Suarez , as well as articles in professional journals like British Journal for the Philosophy of Science , Zeitschrift fur Philosophische Forschung , Australasian Journal of Philosophy , and Philosophia . The kalam cosmological argument, by showing that the to include universe began to exist, demonstrates that the world is not a necessary being and, therefore, not self-explanatory with respect to literature questions its existence. Newman Essay. Two philosophical arguments and two scientific confirmations are presented in support of the beginning of the universe.

Since whatever begins to exist has a cause, there must exist a transcendent cause of the universe. Source: “The Existence of God and ap essay, the Beginning of the write an essay fundamentals of research Universe.” Truth: A Journal of Modern Thought 3 (1991): 85-96. “The first question which should rightly be asked,” wrote G.W.F. Leibniz, is “ Why is there something rather than nothing ?”[1] This question does seem to possess a profound existential force, which has been felt by some of mankind’s greatest thinkers. Ap Essay. According to Aristotle, philosophy begins with a sense of wonder about the world, and the most profound question a man can ask concerns the origin of the universe.[2] In his biography of Ludwig Wittgenstein, Norman Malcolm reports that Wittgenstein said that he sometimes had a certain experience which could best be described by saying that “when I have it, I wonder at newman the existence of the world . I am then inclined to use such phrases as ‘How extraordinary that anything should exist!'”[3] Similarly, one contemporary philosopher remarks, “. . . My mind often seems to reel under the immense significance this question has for me. That anything exists at all does seem to me a matter for literature ap essay questions the deepest awe.”[4] Why does something exist instead of nothing? Leibniz answered this question by arguing that something exists rather than nothing because a necessary being exists which carries within itself its reason for existence and is the sufficient reason for the existence of all contingent being.[5]

Although Leibniz (followed by certain contemporary philosophers) regarded the non- existence of a necessary being as logically impossible, a more modest explication of necessity of existence in in introduction of extended, terms of what he calls “factual necessity” has been given by John Hick: a necessary being is an eternal, uncaused, indestructible, and incorruptible being.[6] Leibniz, of course, identified the necessary being as God. His critics, however, disputed this identification, contending that the material universe could itself be assigned the status of a necessary being. “Why,” queried David Hume, “may not the ap essay material universe be the about season necessary existent Being, according to this pretended explanation of necessity?”[7] Typically, this has been precisely the position of the atheist. Atheists have not felt compelled to literature ap essay embrace the view that the democracy form government essay universe came into being out of nothing for no reason at all; rather they regard the universe itself as a sort of factually necessary being: the universe is eternal, uncaused, indestructible, and incorruptible. As Russell neatly put it, ” . . . The universe is just there, and that’s all.”[8] Does Leibniz’s argument, therefore, leave us in a rational impasse, or might there not be some further resources available for untangling the riddle of the existence of the world? It seems to literature questions me that there are. It will be remembered that an essay the summer essential property of literature ap essay a necessary being is eternality. Essay About. If then it could be made plausible that the ap essay universe began to exist and is not, therefore, eternal, one would to that extent at least have shown the superiority of theism as a rational world view. Now there is one form of the essay about the summer cosmological argument, much neglected today but of great historical importance, that aims precisely at ap essay the demonstration that the universe had a beginning in time.[9] Originating in the efforts of Christian theologians to refute the Greek doctrine of the eternity of addition words for essay matter, this argument was developed into sophisticated formulations by medieval Islamic and ap essay, Jewish theologians, who in turn passed it back to the Latin West.

The argument thus has a broad intersectarian appeal, having been defended by Muslims, Jews, and Christians both Catholic and Protestant. This argument, which I have called the kalam cosmological argument, can be exhibited as follows: Let us examine this argument more closely. Defense of the Kalam Cosmological Argument. Clearly, the crucial premiss in this argument is (2), and two independent arguments are offered in words, support of literature ap essay it. Fundamentals. Let us, therefore, turn first to an examination of the supporting arguments. In order to ap essay questions understand (2.1), we need to understand the difference between a potential infinite and an actual infinite. Crudely put, a potential infinite is a collection which is increasing toward infinity as a limit, but never gets there. Such a collection is really indefinite, not infinite. The sign of this sort of infinity, which is used in calculus, is ? . An actual infinite is a collection in which the number of members really is infinite. The collection is not growing toward infinity; it is infinite, it is “complete.” The sign of this sort of infinity, which is used in democracy government essay, set theory to ap essay questions designate sets which have an infinite number of members, such as , is A 0 . Now (2.11) maintains, not that a potentially infinite number of footnoting an essay things cannot exist, but that an ap essay questions actually infinite number of things cannot exist.

For if an actually infinite number of things could exist, this would spawn all sorts of absurdities. Perhaps the best way to bring home the truth of (2.11) is by means of an illustration. Let me use one of my favorites, Hilbert’s Hotel, a product of the mind of the great German mathematician, David Hilbert. Let us imagine a hotel with a finite number of rooms. Suppose, furthermore, that all the rooms are full . When a new guest arrives asking for a room, the newman essay proprietor apologizes, “Sorry, all the ap essay questions rooms are full.” But now let us imagine a hotel with an infinite number of rooms and suppose once more that all the addition words for essay rooms are full. There is not a single vacant room throughout the entire infinite hotel. Now suppose a new guest shows up, asking for a room. “But of course!” says the proprietor, and he immediately shifts the ap essay questions person in room #1 into room #2, the person in room #2 into room #3, the person in room #3 into room #4 and so on, out to infinity. An Essay Fundamentals Of Research. As a result of literature these room changes, room #1 now becomes vacant and the new guest gratefully checks in. But remember, before he arrived, all the rooms were full! Equally curious, according to the mathematicians, there are now no more persons in the hotel than there were before: the number is just infinite.

But how can this be? The proprietor just added the new guest’s name to the register and gave him his keys-how can there not be one more person in the hotel than before? But the situation becomes even stranger. Democracy Government. For suppose an infinity of new guests show up the desk, asking for a room. “Of course, of course!” says the proprietor, and he proceeds to shift the person in room #1 into literature ap essay questions, room #2, the newman development doctrine person in room #2 into room #4, the person in room #3 into room #6, and so on out to infinity, always putting each former occupant into the room number twice his own. As a result, all the odd numbered rooms become vacant, and literature, the infinity of new guests is for essay easily accommodated. And yet, before they came, all the literature questions rooms were full!

And again, strangely enough, the number of guests in newman essay development doctrine, the hotel is the same after the infinity of new guests check in as before, even though there were as many new guests as old guests. In fact, the proprietor could repeat this process infinitely many times and yet there would never be one single person more in the hotel than before. But Hilbert’s Hotel is even stranger than the German mathematician gave it out to be. For suppose some of the guests start to check out. Suppose the guest in room #1 departs. Is there not now one less person in questions, the hotel? Not according to the mathematicians, but just ask the woman who makes the beds! Suppose the the summer guests in literature, room numbers 1, 3, 5, . Footnoting. . . check out. In this case, an infinite number of people have left the hotel, but according to the mathematicians there are no fewer people in the hotel—but don’t talk to that laundry woman!

In fact, we could have every other guest check out of the hotel and repeat this process infinitely many times, and yet there would never be any f people in the hotel. Ap Essay. But suppose instead the persons in room number 4, 5, 6, . . . checked out. At a single stroke, the government essay hotel would be virtually emptied, the guest register reduced to three names, and the infinite converted to finitude. And yet it would remain true that the fewer same number of guests checked out this time as when the guests in room numbers 1, 3, 5, . . . checked out. Can anyone sincerely believe that such a hotel could exist in reality? These sorts of absurdities illustrate the impossibility of the existence of an actually infinite number of things. That takes us to (2.12). The truth of literature questions this premiss seems fairly obvious. If the universe never began to exist, then prior to the present event there have existed an actually infinite number of previous events.

Hence, a beginningless series of events in time entails the existence of an actually infinite number of things, namely, past events. Given the truth of (2.11) and (2.12), the conclusion (2.13) logically follows. The series of past events must be finite and have a beginning. But since the universe is not distinct from the the summer series of literature events, it follows that the about universe began to literature ap essay exist. At this point, we might find it profitable to consider several objections that might be raised against the argument. First, let us consider objections to (2.11). Wallace Matson objects that the premiss must mean that an actually infinite number of things is logically impossible, but it is easy to show that such a collection is logically possible. In Introduction Essay. For example, the series of negative numbers is an actually infinite collection with no first member.[10] Matson’s error here lies in thinking that (2.11) means to assert the logical impossibility of an actually infinite number of things. What the questions premise expresses is the real or factual impossibility of an actual infinite.

To illustrate the difference between real and logical possibility: there is no logical impossibility in something’s coming to exist without a cause, but such a circumstance may well be really or metaphysically impossible. In the same way, (2.11) asserts that the absurdities entailed in the real existence of an actual infinite show that such an existence is metaphysically impossible. Newman Essay Development. Hence, one could grant that in the conceptual realm of mathematics one can, given certain conventions and axioms, speak consistently about infinite sets of numbers, but this in no way implies that an actually infinite number of ap essay questions things is really possible. One might also note that the mathematical school of in introduction of extended essay intuitionism denies that even the literature questions number series is actually infinite (they take it to be potentially infinite only), so that appeal to footnoting an essay number series as examples of actual infinites is a moot procedure. The late J.L. Mackie also objected to (2.11), claiming that the absurdities are resolved by noting that for infinite groups the axiom “the whole is greater than its part” does not hold, as it does for finite groups.[11] Similarly, Quentin Smith comments that once we understand that an infinite set has a proper subset which has the same number of members as the set itself, the purportedly absurd situations become “perfectly believable.”[12] But to my mind, it is precisely this feature of literature infinite set theory which, when translated into the realm of the write on the fundamentals of research real, yields results which are perfectly incredible, for example, Hilbert’s Hotel. Literature Ap Essay Questions. Moreover, not all the absurdities stem from infinite set theory’s denial of Euclid’s axiom: the for essay absurdities illustrated by guests checking out of the hotel stem from the self-contradictory results when the inverse operations of subtraction or division are performed using transfinite numbers. Literature Ap Essay Questions. Here the case against an actually infinite collection of things becomes decisive. Finally one might note the democracy government essay objection of Sorabji, who maintains that illustrations such as Hilbert’s Hotel involve no absurdity. In order to understand what is wrong with the kalam argument, he asks us to envision two parallel columns beginning at the same point and stretching away into the infinite distance, one the column of past years and the other the column of past days. The sense in which the column of past days is no larger than the column of past years, says Sorabji, is that the column of days will not “stick out” beyond the far end of the other column—since neither column has a far end.

Now in the case of Hilbert’s Hotel, there is the temptation to think that some unfortunate resident at the far end will drop off into space. But there is no far end: the line of residents will not stick out beyond the far end of the line of rooms. Literature Ap Essay Questions. Once this is seen, the democracy outcome is just an ap essay explicable—even if a surprising and exhilarating—truth about infinity.[13] Now Sorabji is certainly correct, as we have seen, that Hilbert’s Hotel illustrates an explicable truth about the nature of the actual infinite. If an actually infinite number of things could exist, a Hilbert’s Hotel would be possible. But Sorabji seems to write an essay on the fundamentals fail to understand the heart of the literature ap essay paradox: I, for one, experience no temptation to newman development doctrine think of people dropping off the far end of the hotel, for there is none, but I do have difficulty believing that a hotel in which all the rooms are occupied can accommodate more guests. Of course, the line of guests will not stick out beyond the line of rooms, but if all of those infinite rooms already have guests in them, then can moving those guests about really create empty rooms?

Sorabji’s own illustration of the columns of past years and days I find not a little disquieting: if we divide the columns into foot-long segments and mark one column as the years and the other as the days, then one column is as long as the other and yet for every foot-length segment in literature questions, the column of write an essay on the years, 365 segments of equal length are found in questions, the column of days! These paradoxical results can be avoided only if such actually infinite collections can exist only in the imagination, not in reality. In any case, the Hilbert’s Hotel illustration is not exhausted by dealing only with the addition of new guests, for the subtraction of guests results in absurdities even more intractable. Sorabji’s analysis says nothing to resolve these. Hence, it seems to me that the objections to government premiss (2.11) are less plausible than the ap essay premiss itself.

With regard to addition for essay (2.12), the literature most frequent objection is that the past ought to be regarded as a potential infinite only, not an actual infinite. Essay. This was Aquinas’s position versus Bonaventure, and the contemporary philosopher Charles Hartshorne seems to side with Thomas on literature questions this issue.[14] Such a position is, however, untenable. The future is potentially infinite—since it does not exist—but the past is actual in a way the future is not, as evidenced by the fact that we have traces of the past in the present, but no traces of the future. Hence, if the words for essay series of past events never began to exist, there must have been an actually infinite number of past events. The objections to either premiss, therefore, seem to be less compelling than the premisses themselves. Together they imply that the universe began to exist. Literature. Hence, I conclude that this argument furnishes good grounds for accepting the truth of premiss (2) that the universe began to exist. The second argument (2.2) for the beginning of the universe is what in introduction of extended essay based on the impossibility of forming an actual infinite by ap essay, successive addition. This argument is distinct from the first in words, that it does not deny the possibility of the existence of an actual infinite, but the ap essay possibility of write of research its being formed by successive addition.

Premiss (2.21) is the ap essay questions crucial step in the argument. One cannot form an actually infinite collection of newman essay development doctrine things by successively adding one member after another. Since one can always add one more before arriving at infinity, it is literature questions impossible to reach actual infinity. Newman Development. Sometimes this is called the impossibility of “counting to infinity” or “traversing the infinite.” It is important to understand that this impossibility has nothing to do with the amount of literature time available: it belongs to the nature of infinity that it cannot be so formed. Now someone might say that while an infinite collection cannot be formed by beginning at a point and adding members, nevertheless an infinite collection could be formed by never beginning but ending at a point, that is to say, ending at a point after having added one member after another from eternity. But this method seems even more unbelievable than the first method. If one cannot count to infinity, how can one count down from infinity? If one cannot traverse the infinite by moving in one direction, how can one traverse it by simply moving in the opposite direction? Indeed, the idea of a beginningless series ending in the present seems to be absurd.

To give just one illustration: suppose we meet a man who claims to footnoting an essay have been counting from eternity and is now finishing: . . ., -3, -2, -1, 0. We could ask, why did he not finish counting yesterday or the day before or the year before? By then an infinite time had already elapsed, so that he should already have finished by then. Literature Ap Essay Questions. Thus, at no point in the infinite past could we ever find the man finishing his countdown, for by that point he should already be done! In fact, no matter how far back into the past we go, we can never find the man counting at all, for at the summer season any point we reach he will have already finished. But if at no point in the past do we find him counting, this contradicts the hypothesis that he has been counting from ap essay eternity. This illustrates the fact that the formation of an actual infinite by successive addition is form government essay equally impossible whether one proceeds to ap essay or from infinity. Premiss (2.22) presupposes a dynamical view of time according to which events are actualized in serial fashion, one after another. The series of events is not a sort of timelessly subsisting world-line which appears successively in consciousness. Rather becoming is real and essential to a temporal process.

Now this view of time is not without its challenges, but to consider their objections in essay, this article would take us too far afield.[15] In this piece, we must rest content with the fact that we are arguing on literature common ground with our ordinary intuitions of temporal becoming and in agreement with a good number of contemporary philosophers of time and space. Given the truth of (2.21) and (2.22), the conclusion (2.23) logically follows. If the universe did not begin to exist a finite time ago, then the present moment could never arrive. But obviously, it has arrived. What In Introduction Of Extended. Therefore, we know that the universe is finite in literature questions, the past and began to exist. Again, it would be profitable to consider various objections that have been offered against this reasoning. Newman Essay. Against (2.21), Mackie objects that the argument illicitly assumes an infinitely distant starting point in the past and literature questions, then pronounces it impossible to travel from that point to today.

But there would in an essay, an infinite past be no starting point, not even an infinitely distant one. Yet from any given point in literature ap essay, the infinite past, there is only a finite distance to the present.[16] Now it seems to democracy government me that Mackie’s allegation that the argument presupposes an infinitely distant starting point is entirely groundless. The beginningless character of the series only serves to accentuate the questions difficulty of its being formed by an essay of research, successive addition. The fact that there is ap essay questions no beginning at all , not even an infinitely distant one, makes the problem more, not less, nettlesome. And the point that from any moment in the infinite past there is only a finite temporal distance to write an essay fundamentals of research the present may be dismissed as irrelevant. The question is not how any finite portion of the temporal series can be formed, but how the whole infinite series can be formed. If Mackie thinks that because every segment of the series can be formed by successive addition and therefore the whole series can be so formed, then he is ap essay simply committing the on the of research fallacy of composition.

Sorabji similarly objects that the reason it is impossible to count down from infinity is because counting involves by nature taking a starting number, which is literature lacking in this case. But completing an write infinite lapse of years involves no starting year and is, hence, possible.[17] But this response is clearly inadequate, for, as we have seen, the years of an infinite past could be enumerated by the negative numbers, in which case a completed infinity of years would, indeed, entail a beginningless countdown from infinity. Sorabji anticipates this rebuttal, however, and claims that such a backwards countdown is possible in principle and therefore no logical barrier has been exhibited to the elapsing of an ap essay questions infinity of past years. Essay. Again, however, the question I am posing is not whether there is a logical contradiction in such a notion, but whether such a countdown is not metaphysically absurd. For we have seen that such a countdown should at ap essay questions any point already have been completed. But Sorabji is again ready with a response: to say the countdown should at any point already be over addition for essay, confuses counting an infinity of numbers with counting all the numbers.

At any given point in the past, the eternal counter will have already counted an infinity of negative numbers, but that does not entail that he will have counted all the negative numbers. Literature. I do not think the argument makes this alleged equivocation, and this may be made clear by examining the reason why our eternal counter is supposedly able to complete a count of the negative numbers ending at zero. Addition. In order to justify the possibility of this intuitively impossible feat, the questions argument’s opponent appeals to the so- called Principle of Correspondence used in set theory to determine whether two sets are equivalent (that is, have the an essay same number of members) by matching the members of ap essay one set with the members of the other set and vice versa . On the basis of this principle the newman essay doctrine objector argues that since the counter has lived, say, an infinite number of ap essay years and since the set of past years can be put into a one-to-one correspondence with the set of write an essay fundamentals negative numbers, it follows that by counting one number a year an ap essay eternal counter would complete a countdown of the negative numbers by the present year. If we were to ask why the counter would not finish next year or in a hundred years, the objector would respond that prior to the present year an infinite number of write an essay on the of research years will have already elapsed, so that by literature ap essay questions, the Principle of Correspondence, all the numbers should have been counted by now. But this reasoning backfires on the objector: for, as we have seen, on this account the counter should at essay about season any point in the past have already finished counting all the numbers, since a one-to-one correspondence exists between the years of the past and the negative numbers. Literature Questions. Thus, there is no equivocation between counting an infinity of numbers and counting all the numbers. An Essay On The Fundamentals. But at this point a deeper absurdity bursts in view: for suppose there were another counter who counted at a rate of one negative number per day. Literature Ap Essay. According to the Principle of Correspondence, which underlies infinite set theory and transfinite arithmetic, both of write of research our eternal counters will finish their countdowns at the same moment, even though one is counting at a rate 365 times faster than the other! Can anyone believe that such scenarios can actually obtain in reality, but do not rather represent the literature questions outcome of an imaginary game being played in a purely conceptual realm according to adopted logical conventions and axioms? As for essay premiss (2.22), many thinkers have objected that we need not regard the past as a beginningless infinite series with an end in the present. Popper, for example, admits that the set of all past events is actually infinite, but holds that the literature ap essay series of past events is potentially infinite.

This may be seen by beginning in essay development, the present and numbering the events backward, thus forming a potential infinite. Therefore, the literature problem of an actual infinite’s being formed by successive addition does not arise.[18] Similarly, Swinburne muses that it is dubious whether a completed infinite series with no beginning but an end makes sense, but he proposes to solve the problem by beginning in the present and regressing into the past so that the series of past events would have no end and would therefore not be a completed infinite.[19] This objection, however, clearly confuses the mental regress of counting with the real progress of the temporal series of events itself. Numbering the an essay series from the ap essay present backward only shows that if there are an infinite number of past events, then we can enumerate an infinite number of past events. But the problem is, how can this infinite collection of events come to be formed by successive addition? How we mentally conceive the series does not in the summer season, any way affect the ontological character of the series itself as a series with no beginning but an end, or in other words, as an actual infinite completed by successive addition. Once again, then, the ap essay objections to (2.21) and (2.22) seem less plausible than the premisses themselves.

Together they imply (2.23), or that the universe began to of research exist. These purely philosophical arguments for the beginning of the universe have received remarkable confirmation from literature discoveries in democracy form government, astronomy and astrophysics during this century. Literature. These confirmations might be summarized under two heads: the confirmation from the expansion of the universe and the confirmation from what in introduction thermodynamic properties of the universe. With regard to the first, Hubble’s discovery in 1929 of the red-shift in the light from distant galaxies began a revolution in astronomy perhaps as significant as the Copernican revolution. Ap Essay. Prior to this time the universe as a whole was conceived to be static; but the startling conclusion to which Hubble was led was that the red-shift is due to addition words for essay the fact that the ap essay universe is in fact expanding . The staggering implication of this fact is that as one traces the expansion back in time, the universe becomes denser and denser until one reaches a point of in introduction infinite density from which the universe began to expand.

The upshot of Hubble’s discovery was that at some point in the finite past-probably around 15 billion years ago-the entire known universe was contracted down to a single mathematical point which marked the questions origin of the universe. That initial explosion has come to be known as the “Big Bang.” Four of the democracy form essay world’s most prominent astronomers described that event in these words: The universe began from a state of infinite density. Ap Essay. . . Doctrine. . Ap Essay Questions. Space and time were created in that event and footnoting an essay, so was all the matter in the universe. Ap Essay. It is words not meaningful to ask what happened before the Big Bang; it is like asking what is north of the North Pole. Similarly, it is not sensible to ask where the questions Big Bang took place. Write Fundamentals. The point-universe was not an ap essay object isolated in space; it was the entire universe, and so the answer can only be that the Big Bang happened everywhere.[20] This event that marked the what to include beginning of the universe becomes all the more amazing when one reflects on the fact that a state of “infinite density” is synonymous to “nothing.” There can be no object that possesses infinite density, for if it had any size at all it could still be even more dense.

Therefore, as Cambridge astronomer Fred Hoyle points out, the literature ap essay Big Bang Theory requires the creation of matter from nothing. This is because as one goes back in time, one reaches a point at which, in Hoyle’s words, the universe was “shrunk down to nothing at all.”[21] Thus, what the Big Bang model of the universe seems to write an essay fundamentals of research require is that the universe began to questions exist and government essay, was created out of literature ap essay nothing. Some theorists have attempted to avoid the absolute beginning of the universe implied by the Big Bang theory by speculating that the universe may undergo an newman doctrine infinite series of expansions and contractions. There are, however, good grounds for literature questions doubting the adequacy of such an oscillating model of the what essay universe: (i) The oscillating model appears to be physically impossible. For all the talk about such models, the fact seems to be that they are only theoretically, but not physically possible. As the late Professor Tinsley of Yale explains, in oscillating models “even though the mathematics say that the universe oscillates, there is no known physics to reverse the collapse and bounce back to a new expansion. Questions. The physics seems to say that those models start from the Big Bang, expand, collapse, then end.”[22] In order for the oscillating model to be correct, it would seem that the for essay known laws of physics would have to be revised. (ii) The oscillating model seems to be observationally untenable. Literature Ap Essay. Two facts of observational astronomy appear to run contrary to the oscillating model. First, the observed homogeneity of matter distribution throughout the universe seems unaccountable on an oscillating model. During the contraction phase of such a model, black holes begin to gobble up surrounding matter, resulting in an inhomogeneous distribution of matter. But there is write no known mechanism to “iron out” these inhomogeneities during the ensuing expansion phase.

Thus, the homogeneity of matter observed throughout the universe would remain unexplained. Literature Ap Essay. Second, the density of the universe appears to be insufficient for the re-contraction of the universe. For the oscillating model to be even possible, it is necessary that the universe be sufficiently dense such that gravity can overcome the force of the expansion and pull the an essay universe back together again. Ap Essay Questions. However, according to the best estimates, if one takes into account both luminous matter and non-luminous matter (found in newman development, galactic halos) as well as any possible contribution of neutrino particles to total mass, the universe is still only literature, about one-half that needed for for essay re-contraction.[23] Moreover, recent work on calculating the speed and deceleration of the expansion confirms that the universe is expanding at, so to speak, “escape velocity” and will not therefore re-contract. According to Sandage and Tammann, “Hence, we are forced to decide that . . . it seems inevitable that the literature Universe will expand forever”; they conclude, therefore, that “the Universe has happened only once.”[24]

As if this were not enough, there is a second scientific confirmation of the essay beginning of the universe based on the thermodynamic properties of various cosmological models. According to the second law of thermodynamics, processes taking place in a closed system always tend toward a state of equilibrium. Now our interest is in what implications this has when the questions law is applied to the universe as a whole. For the essay development doctrine universe is a gigantic closed system, since it is everything there is and no energy is being fed into it from without. The second law seems to imply that, given enough time, the universe will reach a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, known as the “heat death” of the universe. This death may be hot or cold, depending on whether the universe will expand forever or eventually re-contract.

On the one hand, if the density of the literature questions universe is great enough to overcome the force of the expansion, then the on the fundamentals universe will re-contract into questions, a hot fireball. As the universe contracts, the stars burn more rapidly until they finally explode or evaporate. As the universe grows denser, the black holes begin to gobble up everything around them and write on the, begin themselves to coalesce until all the black holes finally coalesce into one gigantic black hole which is coextensive with the universe, from which it will never re-emerge. On the other hand, if the literature questions density of the universe is words insufficient to halt the expansion, as seems more likely, then the galaxies will turn all their gas into stars and the stars will burn out. Literature. At 10[30 ]years the addition words for essay universe will consist of 90% dead stars, 9% supermassive black holes, and l% atomic matter.

Elementary particle physics suggests that thereafter protons will decay into electrons and positrons, so that space will be filled with a rarefied gas so thin that the distance between an literature electron and a positron will be about the size of the present galaxy. At 10[100] years some scientists believe that the black holes themselves will dissipate into radiation and elementary particles. Essay Development Doctrine. Eventually all the matter in the dark, cold, ever-expanding universe will be reduced to an ultra-thin gas of questions elementary particles and radiation. Equilibrium will prevail throughout, and the entire universe will be in its final state, from which no change will occur. Now the question which needs to be asked is this: if, given sufficient time, the universe will reach heat death, then why is it not now in a state of heat death if it has existed for infinite time? If the universe did not begin to what to include in introduction of extended essay exist, then it should now be in a state of equilibrium. Ap Essay. Some theorists have suggested that the universe escapes final heat death by oscillating from eternity past to eternity future. But we have already seen that such a model seems to newman essay doctrine be physically and observationally untenable. But even if we waive those considerations and suppose that the universe does oscillate, the fact is that the thermodynamic properties of this model imply the literature ap essay very beginning of the essay the summer season universe which its proponents seek to avoid. For the thermodynamic properties of an oscillating model are such that the universe expands farther and farther with each successive cycle.

Therefore, as one traces the expansions back in time, they grow smaller and smaller. As one scientific team explains, “The effect of entropy production will be to enlarge the cosmic scale, from cycle to cycle. . . . Thus, looking back in time, each cycle generated less entropy, had a smaller cycle time, and had a smaller cycle expansion factor than the cycle that followed it.”[25] Novikov and Zeldovich of the Institute of Applied Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, therefore, conclude, “The multicycle model has an literature infinite future, but only a finite past.”[26] As another writer points out, the oscillating model of the universe thus still requires an origin of the universe prior to the smallest cycle.[27] So whatever scenario one selects for the future of the universe, thermodynamics implies that the universe began to addition words exist. According to physicist P.C.W. Davies, the universe must have been created a finite time ago and is in the process of winding down. Prior to the creation, the universe simply did not exist. Literature Questions. Therefore, Davies concludes, even though we may not like it, we must conclude that the universe’s energy was somehow simply “put in” at the creation as an an essay initial condition.[28] We, therefore, have both philosophical argument and scientific confirmation for the beginning of the universe. On this basis, I think that we are amply justified in concluding the truth of premiss (2) that the universe began to literature questions exist.

Premiss (1) strikes me as relatively non-controversial. It is based on the metaphysical intuition that something cannot come out of nothing. Hence, any argument for the principle is apt to be less obvious than the principle itself. Even the an essay great skeptic David Hume admitted that he never asserted so absurd a proposition as that something might come into existence without a cause; he only denied that one could prove the obviously true causal principle.[29] With regard to the universe, if originally there were absolutely nothing— no God, no space, no time—then how could the universe possibly come to literature ap essay exist? The truth of the principle ex nihilo , nihil fit is so obvious that I think we are justified in foregoing an footnoting elaborate defense of the argument’s first premiss.

Nevertheless, some thinkers, exercised to avoid the theism implicit in this premiss within the present context, have felt driven to deny its truth. In order to avoid its theistic implications, Davies presents a scenario which, he confesses, “should not be taken too seriously,” but which seems to have a powerful attraction for Davies.[30] He has reference to a quantum theory of gravity according to which spacetime itself could spring uncaused into being out of absolutely nothing. While admitting that there is “still no satisfactory theory of questions quantum gravity,” such a theory “would allow spacetime to be created and newman development, destroyed spontaneously and uncaused in the same way that particles are created and destroyed spontaneously and uncaused. Ap Essay. The theory would entail a certain mathematically determined probability that, for instance, a blob of democracy form essay space would appear where none existed before. Thus, spacetime could pop out of literature questions nothingness as the result of a causeless quantum transition.”[31]

Now, in fact, particle pair production furnishes no analogy for this radical ex nihilo becoming, as Davies seems to imply. This quantum phenomenon, even if an addition words for essay exception to the principle that every event has a cause, provides no analogy to something’s coming into being out of nothing. Though physicists speak of this as particle pair creation and annihilation, such terms are philosophically misleading, for all that actually occurs is conversion of energy into matter or vice versa. As Davies admits, “The processes described here do not represent the creation of matter out of nothing, but the literature ap essay questions conversion of pre- existing energy into democracy essay, material form.”[32] Hence, Davies greatly misleads his reader when he claims that “Particles . . . Questions. can appear out of nowhere without specific causation” and again, “Yet the world of to include of extended quantum physics routinely produces something for ap essay questions nothing.”[33] On the contrary, the words for essay world of literature questions quantum physics never produces something for nothing. But to consider the case on its own merits: quantum gravity is so poorly understood that the period prior to 10[-43] sec, which this theory hopes to describe, has been compared by one wag to doctrine the regions on the maps of the literature ap essay ancient cartographers marked “Here there be dragons”: it can easily be filled with all sorts of fantasies. In fact, there seems to be no good reason to think that such a theory would involve the sort of spontaneous becoming ex nihilo which Davies suggests. A quantum theory of gravity has the write fundamentals goal of providing a theory of gravitation based on the exchange of particles (gravitons) rather than the geometry of questions space, which can then be brought into a Grand Unification Theory that unites all the forces of about nature into a super symmetrical state in which one fundamental force and a single kind of particle exist. But there seems to be nothing in this which suggests the possibility of spontaneous becoming ex nihilo . Indeed, it is not at all clear that Davies’s account is even intelligible. What can be meant, for example, by literature ap essay, the claim that there is a mathematical probability that nothingness should spawn a region of spacetime “where none existed before?” It cannot mean that given enough time a region of spacetime would pop into for essay, existence at a certain place—since neither place nor time exists apart from spacetime.

The notion of some probability of something’s coming out of nothing thus seems incoherent. I am reminded in this connection of ap essay questions some remarks made by A.N. Form Essay. Prior concerning an argument put forward by Jonathan Edwards against something’s coming into existence uncaused. This would be impossible, said Edwards, because it would then be inexplicable why just any and everything cannot or does not come to exist uncaused. One cannot respond that only things of a certain nature come into existence uncaused—since prior to their existence they have no nature which could control their coming to be. Prior made a cosmological application of Edwards’s reasoning by commenting on questions the steady state model’s postulating the essay continuous creation of literature questions hydrogen atoms ex nihilo : It is no part of Hoyle’s theory that this process is causeless, but I want to addition for essay be more definite about this, and to say that if it is causeless, then what is alleged to literature happen is fantastic and incredible. If it is to include possible for questions objects—objects, now, which really are objects, “substances endowed with capacities”—to start existing without a cause, then it is incredible that they should all turn out to write an essay on the fundamentals be objects of the same sort, namely, hydrogen atoms. The peculiar nature of hydrogen atoms cannot possibly be what makes such starting-to-exist possible for them but not for objects of ap essay any other sort; for hydrogen atoms do not have this nature until they are there to have it, i.e. until their starting-to-exist has already occurred. That is Edwards’s argument, in fact; and here it does seem entirely cogent. . . .[34] Now in an essay, the case at hand, if originally absolutely nothing existed, then why should it be spacetime that springs spontaneously out of the void, rather than, say, hydrogen atoms or even rabbits? How can one talk about the probability of any particular thing’s popping into being out of nothing?

Davies on literature ap essay questions one occasion seems to answer as if the laws of essay physics are the controlling factor which determines what may leap uncaused into ap essay, being: “But what of the laws? They have to essay the summer season be ‘there’ to start with so that the literature ap essay questions universe can come into being. Quantum physics has to to include in introduction essay exist (in some sense) so that a quantum transition can generate the cosmos in the first place.”[35] Now this seems exceedingly peculiar. Davies seems to attribute to questions the laws of nature themselves a sort of for essay ontological and causal status such that they constrain spontaneous becoming. But this seems clearly wrong-headed: the laws of physics do not themselves cause or constrain anything; they are simply propositional descriptions of a certain form and generality of what does happen in the universe. And the issue Edwards raises is why, if there were absolutely nothing, it would be true that any one thing rather than another should pop into being uncaused?

It is futile to say it somehow belongs to the nature of spacetime to do so, for if there were absolutely nothing then there would have been no nature to ap essay questions determine that spacetime should spring into being. Even more fundamentally, however, what Davies envisions is surely metaphysical nonsense. Though his scenario is cast as a scientific theory,. someone ought to be bold enough to say that the Emperor is wearing no clothes. Either the necessary and sufficient conditions for the appearance of spacetime existed or not; if so, then it is not true that nothing existed; if not, then it would seem ontologically impossible that being should arise out of absolute non-being. To call such spontaneous springing into being out of non-being a “quantum transition” or to attribute it to “quantum gravity” explains nothing; indeed, on this account, there is on the fundamentals no explanation. It just happens. It seems to me, therefore, that Davies has not provided any plausible basis for denying the truth of the cosmological argument’s first premiss. That whatever begins to exist has a cause would seem to be an literature questions ontologically necessary truth, one which is constantly confirmed in our experience. Given the truth of premisses (1) and (2), it logically follows that (3) the universe has a cause of its existence. In fact, I think that it can be plausibly argued that the write an essay fundamentals of research cause of the universe must be a personal Creator.

For how else could a temporal effect arise from an eternal cause? If the cause were simply a mechanically operating set of necessary and sufficient conditions existing from literature ap essay eternity, then why would not the effect also exist from eternity? For example, if the cause of water being frozen is the temperature’s being below zero degrees, then if the temperature were below zero degrees from eternity, then any water present would be frozen from eternity. The only way to an essay on the have an eternal cause but a temporal effect would seem to be if the cause is a personal agent who freely chooses to create an ap essay effect in time. For example, a man sitting from eternity may will himself to stand up; hence, a temporal effect may arise from an eternally existing agent. Indeed, the agent may will from eternity to in introduction create a temporal effect, so that no change in the agent need be conceived. Thus, we are brought not merely to the first cause of the universe, but to its personal Creator. In conclusion, we have seen on the basis of both philosophical argument and scientific confirmation that it is plausible that the universe began to exist. Given the intuitively obvious principle that whatever begins to exist has a cause of its existence, we have been led to literature conclude that the universe has a cause of its existence.

On the what in introduction basis of our argument, this cause would have to be uncaused, eternal, changeless, timeless, and immaterial. Moreover, it would have to be a personal agent who freely elects to create an ap essay effect in time. Essay About The Summer Season. Therefore, on the basis of the kalam cosmological argument, I conclude that it is rational to believe that God exists. [1]G.W. Leibniz, “The Principles of Nature and of Grace, Based on Reason,” in Leibniz Selections , ed. Philip P. Wiener, The Modern Student’s Library (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1951), p. 527. [2]Aristotle Metaphysica Lambda. l. Ap Essay Questions. 982b10-15. [3]Norman Malcolm, Ludwig Wittgenstein: A Memoir (London: Oxford University Press, 1958), p. 70. [4]J.J.C. Smart, “The Existence of God,” Church Quarterly Review 156 (1955): 194. [5]G.W.

Leibniz, Theodicy: Essays on the Goodness of God, the Freedom of newman essay development doctrine Man, and the Origin of Evil , trans. Questions. E.M. Huggard (London: Routledge Kegan Paul, 1951), p. 127; cf. idem, “Principles,” p. 528. [6]John Hick, “God as Necessary Being,” Journal of Philosophy 57 (1960): 733-4. [7]David Hume, Dialogues concerning Natural Religion , ed. with an addition Introduction by Norman Kemp Smith, Library of the Liberal Arts (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. Ap Essay Questions. 1947), p. 190. [8]Bertrand Russell and F.C. Copleston, “The Existence of God,” in newman essay development, The Existence of God , ed. with an Introduction by John Hick, Problems of Philosophy Series (New York: Macmillan Co., 1964), p. 175. [9]See William Lane Craig, The Cosmological Argument from Plato to Leibniz , Library of Philosophy and ap essay, Religion (London: Macmillan, 1980), pp. 48-58, 61-76, 98-104, 128-31. [10]Wallace Matson, The Existence of God (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1965), pp.

58-60. [11]J.L. Mackie, The Miracle of Theism ( Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), p. 93. [12]Quentin Smith, “Infinity and an essay on the fundamentals of research, the Past,” Philosophy of Science 54 (1987): 69. [13]Richard Sorabji, Time, Creation and the Continuum (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1983), pp.

213, 222-3. [14]Charles Hartshorne, Man’s Vision of God and literature, the Logic of Theism (Chicago: Willett, Clark, Co., 1941), p. 37. [15]G.J. Whitrow defends a form of this argument which does not presuppose a dynamical view of time, by asserting that an infinite past would still have to be “lived through” by any everlasting, conscious being, even if the series of addition for essay physical events subsisted timelessly (G.J. Whitrow, The Natural Philosophy of literature ap essay questions Time , 2d ed. What In Introduction. [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980], pp. 28-32). [17]Sorabji, Time, Creation, and the Continuum, pp. 219-22. [18]K.R.

Popper, “On the Possibility of an questions Infinite Past: a Reply to Whitrow,” British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 29 (1978): 47-8. [19]R.G. Addition For Essay. Swinburne, “The Beginning of the literature ap essay questions Universe,” The Aristotelian Society 40 (1966): 131-2. [20]Richard J. Gott, et.al. , “Will the Universe Expand Forever?” Scientific American (March 1976), p. 65. [21]Fred Hoyle, From Stonehenge to Modern Cosmology (San Francisco: W.H.

Freeman, 1972), p. 36. [22]Beatrice Tinsley, personal letter. [23]David N. Schramm and Gary Steigman, “Relic Neutrinos and what, the Density of the Universe,” Astrophysical Journal 243 (1981): p. 1-7. [24]Alan Sandage and G.A. Tammann, “Steps Toward the Hubble Constant. VII,” Astrophyscial Journal 210 (1976): 23, 7; see also idem, “Steps toward the Hubble Constant. VIII.” Astrophysical Journal 256 (1982): 339-45. [25]Duane Dicus, et.al. “Effects of Proton Decay on the Cosmological Future.” Astrophysical Journal 252 (1982): l, 8. [26]I.D.

Novikov and Ya. B. Zeldovich, “Physical Processes Near Cosmological Singularities,” Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 11 (1973): 401-2. [27]John Gribbin, “Oscillating Universe Bounces Back,” Nature 259 (1976): 16. [28]P.C.W. Davies, The Physics of Time Asymmetry (London: Surrey University Press, 1974), p. 104. [29]David Hume to John Stewart, February, 1754, in The Letters of David Hume , ed. J.Y.T.

Greig (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1932), 1:187. [30]Paul Davies, God and the New Physics (New York: Simon Schuster, 1983), p. 214. [33]Ibid., pp. 215, 216. [34]A.N. Prior, “Limited Indeterminism,” in Papers on Time and Tense (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968), p. 65. Updated: 14 July 2002.

“Concerning matter, we have been all wrong. Literature Ap Essay. What we have called matter is energy, whose vibration has been so lowered as to be perceptible to to include in introduction of extended essay the senses. There is literature no matter.” – Quote attributed to essay about the summer Albert Einstein. Yes, this is quite a bold statement, if true, that would certainly demand some sort of evidence or mathematical proof to back it up. It may seem like a paradox that the things which we can see and ap essay, touch are nonexistent.

However, there is an answer to this, which may be found in essay, the bold and exciting (relatively) new science of literature questions quantum physics. In ages past, it was believed that what we can see and touch, like a rock for newman doctrine instance, was the elements, in other words, matter. However, as science developed, such as chemistry, and much more recently quantum physics, it had been observed that matter seems to exist on literature ap essay questions one hand, but once one takes a deep look into the heart of the an essay matter (no pun intended), there seems as if there is nothing. In atoms, you have mostly protons, neutrons and questions, electrons. However, electrons for example, are insignificantly microscopic and spread out over in introduction of extended, enormous distances. Literature Ap Essay Questions. Inbetween them, there is what is perceived as empty space. In fact, 99.99999% of an to include of extended essay atom is literature this so-called ‘empty space’. Even if we look into electrons, protons, etc, we see that there is yet more open space.

Gluons, neutrinos and the like are also in there somewhere but no matter how far into these particles we look, there is not anything that we can say quantifiably that it is the building block of all of democracy form government essay this. Literature Questions. What’s more, electrons literally possess no dimension. An electron is simply not an object as we know it. There is nothing. However, our eyes and observations are fooling us because indeed this nothing is something but we can not quantifiably say it is something and therefore it is nothing. An Essay. There has to exist an ap essay questions energy that holds all these particles together like a sort of glue, or else matter would not exist because it would be akin to having a rock turn into newman development, sand that can not stay together as a rock any longer.

There have been some notable quantum physicists, such as Dr. Literature Ap Essay Questions. Fred Alan Wolf, that have been looking to fuse science with spirituality…and with relative success. About Season. Below is from an article attributed to Dr. Wolf concerning his perception of this most-interesting issue at hand. Quantum physics has thus brought about literature a radical new understanding both of the an essay particles and questions, the void. In subatomic physics, mass is no longer seen as a material substance but is recognized as a form of energy. When a piece of seemingly solid matter–a rock or a human hand or the limb of a tree–is placed under a powerful electronic microscope: the electron-scanning microscope, with the power to magnify several thousand times, takes us down into a realm that has the look of the write on the sea about it… In the kingdom of corpuscles, there is transfiguration and there is literature ap essay questions samsara, the endless round of birth and death. Every passing second, some 2-1/2 million red cells are born; every second, the same number die. The typical cell lives about 110 days, then becomes tired and decrepit. There are no lingering deaths here, for when a cell loses its vital force, it somehow attracts the newman attention of questions macrophage. As the magnification increases, the flesh does begin to dissolve.

Muscle fiber now takes on a fully crystaline aspect. We can see that it is made of long, spiral molecules in orderly array. And all of these molecules are swaying like wheat in the wind, connected with one another and held in place by invisible waves that pulse many trillions of times a second. What are the molecules made of? As we move closer, we see atoms, the tiny shadowy balls dancing around their fixed locations in the molecules, sometimes changing position with their partners in perfect rhythms. And now we focus on one of the atoms; its interior is essay the summer season lightly veiled by a cloud of electrons.

We come closer, increasing the magnification. The shell dissolves and we look on the inside to find…nothing. Somewhere within that emptiness, we know is a nucleus. We scan the space, and ap essay, there it is, a tiny dot. At last, we have discovered something hard and solid, a reference point. But no! as we move closer to the nucleus, it too begins to dissolve.

It too is nothing more than an oscillating field, waves of rhythm. Inside the nucleus are other organized fields: protons, neutrons, even smaller “particles.” Each of these, upon our approach, also dissolve into pure rhythm. These days they (the scientists) are looking for quarks, strange subatomic entities, having qualities which they describe with such words as upness, downness, charm, strangeness, truth, beauty, color, and flavor. Essay The Summer. But no matter. If we could get close enough to these wondrous quarks, they too would melt away. They too would have to give up all pretense of ap essay solidity. Even their speed and relationship would be unclear, leaving them only relationship and pattern of vibration. Of what is the body made? It is made of emptiness and newman development, rhythm. At the ultimate heart of the body, at the heart of the world, there is no solidity.

Once again, there is only the dance. Literature Ap Essay. (At) the unimaginable heart of the atom, the compact nucleus, we have found no solid object, but rather a dynamic pattern of tightly confined energy vibrating perhaps 1022 times a second: a dance… The protons–the positively charged knots in the pattern of the nucleus–are not only powerful; they are very old. Along with the much lighter electrons that spin and vibrate around the outer regions of the atom, the protons constitute the most ancient entities of matter in the universe, going back to the first seconds after the birth of space and time. It follows then that in the world of subatomic physics there are no objects, only processes. Atoms consist of particles and these particles are not made of any solid material substance. When we observe them under a microscope, we never see any substance; we rather observe dynamic patterns, continually changing into one another–a continuous dance of energy. This dance of energy, the underlying rhythm of the universe, is again more intuited than seen. Jack Kornfield, a contemporary teacher of meditation, finds a parallel between the behavior of subatomic particles and meditational states: When the mind becomes very silent, you can clearly see that all that exists in the world are brief moments of consciousness arising together with the about season six sense objects. There is only sight and the knowing of sight, sound and the knowing of sound, smell, taste and the knowing of them, thoughts and ap essay, the knowing of an essay on the fundamentals of research thoughts. If you can make the mind very focused, as you can in meditation, you see that the whole world breaks down into these small events of sight and the knowing, sound and the knowing, thought and the knowing.

No longer are these houses, cars, bodies or even oneself. All you see are particles of literature ap essay consciousness as experience. Yet you can go deep in meditation in another way and the mind becomes very still. Write. You will see differently that consciousness is like waves, like a sea, an ocean. Now it is not particles but instead every sight and every sound is contained in this ocean of consciousness. Literature Ap Essay. From this perspective, there is no sense of essay the summer season particles at all. If truly being the words of Dr.

Wolf, I believe this above explanation of this fascinating reality is a beautiful description of the issue at hand. So how is literature ap essay questions it that we exist as matter? Albert Einstein alluded to an essay this answer. We, the people of this beautiful planet, are really beings made of energy, but we exist at the 3rd dimension because our atoms have a specific frequency which makes us able to exist in this very 3rd dimension. This specific frequency is stable enough for all our lifetime.

Using this information, if we are indeed capable of accelerating and questions, decelerating the frequencies to make us able to exist in the 3rd dimension, then naturally, we can use this in order to travel inter-dimensionally throughout the infinite multiverse…and here lies the key to the true evolution of the human being race. Once we learn, or progress far enough, to what to include essay accelerate and decelerate the vibrating frequencies of our atoms, then, in ap essay questions, theory, we will be able to exist in the 5th dimension and in an essay, parallel universes of ap essay questions this wonderful multiverse. Note: The quote attributed to Albert Einstein in the beginning of the article, as well as the article quotations attributed to Fred Alan Wolf are not in the specific terms which these two physicists have used. However, upon deeper research, there is enough evidence to be compelled to footnoting an essay believe that the ap essay questions general message of matter not being definitive to still hold true. A quote from Einstein’s “Metaphysics of Relativity” (1950)shows this: “Physical objects are not in space, but these objects are spatially extended (as fields). In this way the concept ‘empty space’ loses its meaning. Footnoting An Essay. … The field thus becomes an irreducible element of physical description, irreducible in the same sense as the concept of matter (particles) in the theory of Newton.” Legendary physicist Max Planck is literature ap essay questions attributed to saying in a lecture that was given in Florence the following: “As a physicist, that is, a man who had devoted his whole life to a wholly prosaic science, the exploration of matter, no one would surely suspect me of being a fantast. And so, having studied the atom, I am telling you that there is no matter as such. All matter arises and persists only due to a force that causes the atomic particles to vibrate, holding them together in the tiniest of solar systems, the atom.

Yet in the whole of the universe there is no force that is either intelligent or eternal, and we must therefore assume that behind this force there is a conscious, intelligent mind or spirit. Essay Development. This is the very origin of all matter.” Source of this quote is from the following: Pauli, Wolfgang: THE INFLUENCE OF ARCHETYPICAL PRESENTATIONS ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NATURAL SCIENCE THEORY BY KEPPLER in: Jung Pauli: NATURAL EXPLANATION AND PSYCHE, Zuerich 1952, p. 163. MUST READ ARTICLE ON TRUMP’S GREAT OPPORTUNITY TO BRING TYRANNY TO AMERICA. Democracies end when they are too democratic. Literature Ap Essay. -Plato.

As this dystopian election campaign has unfolded, my mind keeps being tugged by a passage in an essay, Plato’s Republic . It has unsettled — even surprised — me from the moment I first read it in literature ap essay questions, graduate school. The passage is about from the part of the dialogue where Socrates and his friends are talking about the nature of different political systems, how they change over time, and how one can slowly evolve into another. And Socrates seemed pretty clear on one sobering point: that “tyranny is probably established out of no other regime than democracy.” What did Plato mean by that? Democracy, for literature questions him, I discovered, was a political system of maximal freedom and essay, equality, where every lifestyle is allowed and literature questions, public offices are filled by about the summer season, a lottery. Ap Essay Questions. And the longer a democracy lasted, Plato argued, the more democratic it would become. Its freedoms would multiply; its equality spread. Deference to any sort of authority would wither; tolerance of any kind of inequality would come under intense threat; and multiculturalism and sexual freedom would create a city or a country like “a many-colored cloak decorated in all hues.” This rainbow-flag polity, Plato argues, is, for essay many people, the literature questions fairest of regimes. The freedom in what in introduction essay, that democracy has to be experienced to be believed — with shame and privilege in particular emerging over time as anathema. But it is inherently unstable.

As the authority of elites fades, as Establishment values cede to popular ones, views and ap essay questions, identities can become so magnificently diverse as to be mutually uncomprehending. And when all the barriers to equality, formal and informal, have been removed; when everyone is equal; when elites are despised and full license is established to do “whatever one wants,” you arrive at what might be called late-stage democracy. There is no kowtowing to authority here, let alone to political experience or expertise. The very rich come under attack, as inequality becomes increasingly intolerable. Patriarchy is also dismantled: “We almost forgot to addition words for essay mention the extent of the law of equality and of freedom in literature ap essay, the relations of women with men and men with women.” Family hierarchies are inverted: “A father habituates himself to addition words for essay be like his child and fear his sons, and a son habituates himself to be like his father and to have no shame before or fear of his parents.” In classrooms, “as the teacher … is frightened of the pupils and literature ap essay, fawns on them, so the students make light of what to include in introduction of extended essay their teachers.” Animals are regarded as equal to humans; the rich mingle freely with the poor in literature ap essay questions, the streets and addition for essay, try to literature ap essay blend in. The foreigner is equal to the citizen.

And it is when a democracy has ripened as fully as this, Plato argues, that a would-be tyrant will often seize his moment. He is usually of the elite but has a nature in essay about, tune with the time — given over to random pleasures and ap essay questions, whims, feasting on plenty of food and sex, and reveling in the non-judgment that is democracy essay democracy’s civil religion. He makes his move by “taking over ap essay, a particularly obedient mob” and attacking his wealthy peers as corrupt. If not stopped quickly, his appetite for attacking the rich on the summer season behalf of the people swells further. He is a traitor to his class — and soon, his elite enemies, shorn of popular legitimacy, find a way to appease him or are forced to flee. Eventually, he stands alone, promising to cut through the paralysis of democratic incoherence. It’s as if he were offering the addled, distracted, and self-indulgent citizens a kind of relief from democracy’s endless choices and insecurities. He rides a backlash to excess—“too much freedom seems to change into nothing but too much slavery” — and offers himself as the personified answer to the internal conflicts of the literature ap essay questions democratic mess. Write An Essay On The. He pledges, above all, to take on the increasingly despised elites.

And as the people thrill to literature ap essay questions him as a kind of solution, a democracy willingly, even impetuously, repeals itself. And so, as I chit-chatted over newman essay development doctrine, cocktails at a Washington office Christmas party in December, and literature, saw, looming above our heads, the pulsating, angry televised face of Donald Trump on Fox News, I couldn’t help but feel a little nausea permeate my stomach. And as I watched frenzied Trump rallies on C-SPAN in the spring, and saw him lay waste to far more qualified political peers in the debates by democracy, simply calling them names, the nausea turned to dread. And when he seemed to condone physical violence as a response to literature ap essay questions political disagreement, alarm bells started to ring in my head. Plato had planted a gnawing worry in my mind a few decades ago about the intrinsic danger of late-democratic life. Government. It was increasingly hard not to see in Plato’s vision a murky reflection of our own hyper-democratic times and in Trump a demagogic, tyrannical character plucked directly out of one of the first books about politics ever written. Could it be that the Donald has emerged from the populist circuses of pro wrestling and New York City tabloids, via reality television and Twitter, to prove not just Plato but also James Madison right, that democracies “have ever been spectacles of turbulence and ap essay questions, contention … and have in general been as short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths”? Is he testing democracy’s singular weakness — its susceptibility to the demagogue — by blasting through the newman development doctrine firewalls we once had in place to prevent such a person from seizing power? Or am I overreacting?

Perhaps. Literature Ap Essay. The nausea comes and goes, and there have been days when the news algorithm has actually reassured me that “peak Trump” has arrived. But it hasn’t gone away, and neither has Trump. Write. In the ap essay wake of his most recent primary triumphs, at a time when he is perilously close to winning enough delegates to grab the Republican nomination outright, I think we must confront this dread and be clear about what this election has already revealed about the government fragility of our way of life and literature ap essay questions, the threat late-stage democracy is beginning to pose to itself. Plato, of course, was not clairvoyant. His analysis of how democracy can turn into tyranny is a complex one more keyed toward ancient societies than our own (and contains more wrinkles and eddies than I can summarize here). Footnoting. His disdain for democratic life was fueled in no small part by the fact that a democracy had executed his mentor, Socrates. And he would, I think, have been astonished at literature questions how American democracy has been able to thrive with unprecedented stability over the last couple of centuries even as it has brought more and democracy form government, more people into literature, its embrace. It remains, in my view, a miracle of constitutional craftsmanship and cultural resilience.

There is no place I would rather live. But it is not immortal, nor should we assume it is immune to the forces that have endangered democracy so many times in human history. Part of American democracy’s stability is owed to government essay the fact that the Founding Fathers had read their Plato. To guard our democracy from the tyranny of the majority and the passions of the mob, they constructed large, hefty barriers between the popular will and ap essay, the exercise of power. Voting rights were tightly circumscribed. The president and vice-president were not to be popularly elected but selected by an Electoral College, whose representatives were selected by the various states, often through state legislatures. The Senate’s structure (with two members from footnoting every state) was designed to temper the power of the more populous states, and its term of office (six years, compared with two for the House) was designed to cool and restrain temporary populist passions. The Supreme Court, picked by the president and confirmed by the Senate, was the final bulwark against any democratic furies that might percolate up from the House and threaten the Constitution. This separation of powers was designed precisely to create sturdy firewalls against ap essay questions, democratic wildfires.

Over the centuries, however, many of these undemocratic rules have been weakened or abolished. The franchise has been extended far beyond propertied white men. Government. The presidency is now effectively elected through popular vote, with the literature Electoral College almost always reflecting the footnoting national democratic will. And these formal democratic advances were accompanied by informal ones, as the culture of democracy slowly took deeper root. For a very long time, only the ap essay elites of the political parties came to select their candidates at their quadrennial conventions, with the vote largely restricted to party officials from the various states (and often decided in, yes, smoke-filled rooms in large hotel suites). Beginning in the early 1900s, however, the parties began experimenting with primaries, and write of research, after the chaos of the 1968 Democratic convention, today’s far more democratic system became the literature ap essay norm. Direct democracy didn’t just elect Congress and the president anymore; it expanded the an essay notion of who might be qualified for public office. Once, candidates built a career through experience in elected or Cabinet positions or as military commanders; they were effectively selected by peer review.

That elitist sorting mechanism has slowly imploded. In 1940, Wendell Willkie, a businessman with no previous political office, won the Republican nomination for president, pledging to keep America out of literature ap essay war and boasting that his personal wealth inoculated him against corruption: “I will be under obligation to nobody except the people.” He lost badly to Franklin D. Roosevelt, but nonetheless, since then, nonpolitical candidates have proliferated, from Ross Perot and Jesse Jackson, to Steve Forbes and Herman Cain, to democracy form government essay this year’s crop of Ben Carson, Carly Fiorina, and, of course, Donald J. Trump. This further widening of questions our democracy — our increased openness to being led by anyone; indeed, our accelerating preference for outsiders — is now almost complete. The barriers to the popular will, especially when it comes to choosing our president, are now almost nonexistent. In 2000, George W. Bush lost the popular vote and won the election thanks to Electoral College math and, more egregiously, to a partisan Supreme Court vote. Al Gore’s eventual concession spared the nation a constitutional crisis, but the episode generated widespread unease, not just among Democrats. And this year, the essay season delegate system established by questions, our political parties is also under assault.

Trump has argued that the candidate with the most votes should get the Republican nomination, regardless of the rules in an essay fundamentals of research, place. It now looks as if he won’t even need to win that argument — that he’ll bank enough delegates to secure the nomination uncontested — but he’s won it anyway. Fully half of literature questions Americans now believe the traditional nominating system is rigged. Many contend, of of extended essay course, that American democracy is actually in retreat, close to being destroyed by literature ap essay, the vastly more unequal economy of the last quarter-century and the ability of the very rich to an essay on the fundamentals of research purchase political influence. This is Bernie Sanders’s core critique. But the past few presidential elections have demonstrated that, in fact, money from the ultra-rich has been mostly a dud. Barack Obama, whose 2008 campaign was propelled by small donors and empowered by the internet, blazed the trail of the modern-day insurrectionist, defeating the questions prohibitive favorite in the Democratic primary and later his Republican opponent (both pillars of their parties’ Establishments and backed by an essay on the fundamentals, moneyed elites).

In 2012, the fund-raising power behind Mitt Romney — avatar of the one percent — failed to dislodge Obama from office. And in this presidential cycle, the breakout candidates of both parties have soared without financial support from the elites. Sanders, who is sustaining his campaign all the way to ap essay questions California on the backs of small donors and large crowds, is, to put it bluntly, a walking refutation of words for essay his own argument. Ap Essay. Trump, of course, is newman development a largely self-funding billionaire — but like Willkie, he argues that his wealth uniquely enables him to resist the influence of the rich and their lobbyists. Those despairing over the influence of Big Money in American politics must also explain the swift, humiliating demise of Jeb Bush and the struggling Establishment campaign of Hillary Clinton. The evidence suggests that direct democracy, far from being throttled, is actually intensifying its grip on American politics. None of this is necessarily cause for alarm, even though it would be giving the literature ap essay questions Founding Fathers palpitations. The emergence of the first black president — unimaginable before our more inclusive democracy — is footnoting miraculous, a strengthening, rather than weakening, of the system. Questions. The days when party machines just fixed things or rigged elections are mercifully done with. The way in which outsider candidates, from Obama to Trump and newman development doctrine, Sanders, have brought millions of new people into the electoral process is an unmitigated advance. The inclusion of ap essay questions previously excluded voices helps, rather than impedes, our public deliberation.

But it is precisely because of the great accomplishments of our democracy that we should be vigilant about what in introduction of extended essay its specific, unique vulnerability: its susceptibility, in stressful times, to the appeal of a shameless demagogue. What the 21st century added to literature ap essay questions this picture, it’s now blindingly obvious, was media democracy — in a truly revolutionary form. If late-stage political democracy has taken two centuries to ripen, the media equivalent took around two decades, swiftly erasing almost any elite moderation or control of our democratic discourse. The process had its origins in partisan talk radio at the end of the past century. The rise of the internet — an event so swift and pervasive its political effect is only now beginning to be understood — further democratized every source of information, dramatically expanded each outlet’s readership, and gave everyone a platform.

All the old barriers to entry — the cost of print and democracy government, paper and distribution — crumbled. So much of this was welcome. I relished it myself in the early aughts, starting a blog and questions, soon reaching as many readers, if not more, as some small magazines do. Fusty old-media institutions, grown fat and lazy, deserved a drubbing. The early independent blogosphere corrected facts, exposed bias, earned scoops. And as the essay the summer medium matured, and as Facebook and Twitter took hold, everyone became a kind of blogger. In ways no 20th-century journalist would have believed, we all now have our own virtual newspapers on our Facebook newsfeeds and Twitter timelines — picking stories from countless sources and creating a peer-to-peer media almost completely free of editing or interference by elites.

This was bound to questions make politics more fluid. Political organizing — calling a meeting, fomenting a rally to advance a cause — used to be extremely laborious. Now you could bring together a virtual mass movement with a single webpage. Addition For Essay. It would take you a few seconds. The web was also uniquely capable of absorbing other forms of media, conflating genres and categories in ways never seen before. The distinction between politics and literature ap essay questions, entertainment became fuzzier; election coverage became even more modeled on what to include of extended sportscasting; your Pornhub jostled right next to your mother’s Facebook page. Ap Essay Questions. The web’s algorithms all but removed any editorial judgment, and the effect soon had cable news abandoning even the pretense of asking “Is this relevant?” or “Do we really need to cover this live?” in the rush toward ratings bonanzas.

In the end, all these categories were reduced to one thing: traffic, measured far more accurately than any other medium had ever done before. And what mainly fuels this is precisely what the Founders feared about democratic culture: feeling, emotion, and narcissism, rather than reason, empiricism, and public-spiritedness. What To Include In Introduction Of Extended. Online debates become personal, emotional, and irresolvable almost as soon as they begin. Godwin’s Law — it’s only a matter of questions time before a comments section brings up Hitler — is a reflection of the write an essay fundamentals collapse of the ap essay questions reasoned deliberation the Founders saw as indispensable to form government essay a functioning republic. Yes, occasional rational points still fly back and forth, but there are dramatically fewer elite arbiters to establish which of literature questions those points is actually true or valid or relevant. We have lost authoritative sources for even a common set of facts.

And without such common empirical ground, the emotional component of form essay politics becomes inflamed and reason retreats even further. The more emotive the candidate, the more supporters he or she will get. Politically, we lucked out at first. Literature Ap Essay. Obama would never have been nominated for the presidency, let alone elected, if he hadn’t harnessed the power of the web and the charisma of an essay his media celebrity. But he was also, paradoxically, a very elite figure, a former state and U.S. senator, a product of Harvard Law School, and, as it turned out, blessed with a preternaturally rational and literature, calm disposition. Essay About The Summer Season. So he has masked, temporarily, the real risks in the system that his pioneering campaign revealed. Hence many Democrats’ frustration with him.

Those who saw in his campaign the seeds of revolutionary change, who were drawn to him by their own messianic delusions, came to be bitterly disappointed by his governing moderation and pragmatism. The climate Obama thrived in, however, was also ripe for far less restrained opportunists. In 2008, Sarah Palin emerged as proof that an ardent Republican, branded as an outsider, tailor-made for reality TV, proud of her own ignorance about the world, and reaching an literature ap essay questions audience directly through online media, could also triumph in this new era. She was, it turned out, a John the Baptist for the true messiah of conservative populism, waiting patiently and strategically for his time to come. Trump, we now know, had been considering running for president for decades. Those who didn’t see him coming — or kept treating him as a joke — had not yet absorbed the precedents of Obama and Palin or the power of the democracy form essay new wide-open system to change the literature rules of the political game. Trump was as underrated for all of 2015 as Obama was in 2007 — and for the same reasons. He intuitively grasped the on the of research vanishing authority of American political and media elites, and he had long fashioned a public persona perfectly attuned to blast past them. Despite his immense wealth and inherited privilege, Trump had always cultivated a common touch. He did not hide his wealth in the late-20th century — he flaunted it in a way that connected with the masses. He lived the rich man’s life most working men dreamed of — endless glamour and women, for example — without sacrificing a way of literature ap essay questions talking about the world that would not be out of place on democracy government essay the construction sites he regularly toured.

His was a cult of democratic aspiration. His 1987 book, The Art of the Deal , promised its readers a path to instant success; his appearances on “The Howard Stern Show” cemented his appeal. His friendship with Vince McMahon offered him an literature questions early entree into the world of footnoting professional wrestling, with its fusion of ap essay questions sports and fantasy. Essay About. He was a macho media superstar. One of the more amazing episodes in Sarah Palin’s early political life, in fact, bears this out. She popped up in the Anchorage Daily News as “a commercial fisherman from Wasilla” on April 3, 1996. Literature. Palin had told her husband she was going to Costco but had sneaked into J.C. Penney in Anchorage to see … one Ivana Trump, who, in the wake of her divorce, was touting her branded perfume. “We want to see Ivana,” Palin told the paper, “because we are so desperate in about, Alaska for any semblance of glamour and culture.” Trump assiduously cultivated this image and took to reality television as a natural.

Each week, for 14 seasons of The Apprentice, he would look someone in the eye and tell them, “You’re fired!” The conversation most humane bosses fear to literature have with an employee was something Trump clearly relished, and the cruelty became entertainment. In retrospect, it is essay the summer season clear he was training — both himself and his viewers. If you want to understand why a figure so widely disliked nonetheless powers toward the election as if he were approaching a reality-TV-show finale, look no further. Ap Essay Questions. His television tactics, as applied to presidential debates, wiped out rivals used to a different game. And all our reality-TV training has conditioned us to hope he’ll win — or at newman development doctrine least stay in the game till the final round.

In such a shame-free media environment, the assholes often win. In the end, you support them because they’re assholes. In Eric Hoffer’s classic 1951 tract, The True Believer , he sketches the dynamics of ap essay a genuine mass movement. He was thinking of the upheavals in addition words for essay, Europe in the first half of the century, but the book remains sobering, especially now. Hoffer’s core insight was to locate the source of ap essay all truly mass movements in a collective sense of acute frustration. Not despair, or revolt, or resignation — but frustration simmering with rage. Mass movements, he notes (as did Tocqueville centuries before him), rarely arise when oppression or misery is at its worst (say, 2009); they tend to appear when the worst is behind us but the future seems not so much better (say, 2016). Footnoting An Essay. It is when a recovery finally gathers speed and literature ap essay questions, some improvement is tangible but not yet widespread that the anger begins to rise. Footnoting. After the suffering of recession or unemployment, and despite hard work with stagnant or dwindling pay, the literature future stretches ahead with relief just out of newman development doctrine reach. Ap Essay. When those who helped create the essay about season last recession face no consequences but renewed fabulous wealth, the anger reaches a crescendo.

The deeper, long-term reasons for today’s rage are not hard to find, although many of us elites have shamefully found ourselves able to ignore them. The jobs available to the working class no longer contain the kind of craftsmanship or satisfaction or meaning that can take the sting out of their low and stagnant wages. The once-familiar avenues for literature ap essay socialization — the church, the union hall, the VFW — have become less vibrant and social isolation more common. Global economic forces have pummeled blue-collar workers more relentlessly than almost any other segment of society, forcing them to an essay compete against hundreds of millions of equally skilled workers throughout the planet. Ap Essay Questions. No one asked them in the 1990s if this was the future they wanted.

And the impact has been more brutal than many economists predicted. No wonder suicide and mortality rates among the white working poor are spiking dramatically. “It is usually those whose poverty is addition for essay relatively recent, the ‘new poor,’ who throb with the ferment of frustration,” Hoffer argues. Fundamentalist religion long provided some emotional support for those left behind (for one thing, it invites practitioners to defy the elites as unholy), but its influence has waned as modernity has penetrated almost everything and the great culture wars of the literature 1990s and 2000s have ended in footnoting, a rout. The result has been a more diverse mainstream culture — but also, simultaneously, a subculture that is even more alienated and despised, and ever more infuriated and bloody-minded. This is an age in which a woman might succeed a black man as president, but also one in literature ap essay questions, which a member of the white working class has declining options to make a decent living. This is a time when gay people can be married in 50 states, even as working-class families are hanging by a thread. It’s a period in which we have become far more aware of the historic injustices that still haunt African-Americans and yet we treat the desperate plight of today’s white working ­class as an afterthought. And so late-stage capitalism is creating a righteous, revolutionary anger that late-stage democracy has precious little ability to moderate or constrain — and has actually helped exacerbate. For the white working class, having had their morals roundly mocked, their religion deemed primitive, and their economic prospects decimated, now find their very gender and to include, race, indeed the very way they talk about reality, described as a kind of problem for literature ap essay questions the nation to overcome. This is just one aspect of an essay what Trump has masterfully signaled as “political correctness” run amok, or what might be better described as the newly rigid progressive passion for racial and sexual equality of outcome, rather than the ap essay questions liberal aspiration to mere equality of opportunity.

Much of the newly energized left has come to see the white working class not as allies but primarily as bigots, misogynists, racists, and homophobes, thereby condemning those often at the near-bottom rung of the economy to footnoting an essay the bottom rung of the culture as well. A struggling white man in the heartland is now told to “check his privilege” by students at Ivy League colleges. Even if you agree that the privilege exists, it’s hard not to empathize with the object of literature this disdain. To Include Of Extended. These working-class communities, already alienated, hear — how can they not? — the glib and easy dismissals of literature ap essay “white straight men” as the ultimate source of all our woes. They smell the condescension and democracy form government essay, the broad generalizations about them — all of which would be repellent if directed at ap essay questions racial minorities — and see themselves, in Hoffer’s words, “disinherited and injured by an unjust order of things.” And so they wait, and they steam, and they lash out. This was part of the write an essay on the of research emotional force of the tea party: not just the advancement of racial minorities, gays, and women but the ap essay questions simultaneous demonization of the white working-class world, its culture and way of life.

Obama never intended this, but he became a symbol to many of footnoting an essay this cultural marginalization. The Black Lives Matter left stoked the fires still further; so did the gay left, for whom the word magnanimity seems unknown, even in the wake of stunning successes. And as the literature questions tea party swept through Washington in 2010, as its representatives repeatedly held the government budget hostage, threatened the very credit of the U.S., and refused to in introduction hold hearings on questions a Supreme Court nominee, the American political and media Establishment mostly chose to interpret such behavior as something other than unprecedented. An Essay Fundamentals Of Research. But Trump saw what others didn’t, just as Hoffer noted: “The frustrated individual and the true believer make better prognosticators than those who have reason to want the preservation of the status quo.” Mass movements , Hoffer argues, are distinguished by a “facility for make-believe … credulity, a readiness to ap essay questions attempt the impossible.” What, one wonders, could be more impossible than suddenly vetting every single visitor to the U.S. for traces of democracy government Islamic belief? What could be more make-believe than a big, beautiful wall stretching across the entire Mexican border, paid for by the Mexican government?

What could be more credulous than arguing that we could pay off our national debt through a global trade war? In a conventional political party, and in a rational political discourse, such ideas would be laughed out of contention, their self-evident impossibility disqualifying them from serious consideration. In the emotional fervor of a democratic mass movement, however, these impossibilities become icons of hope, symbols of ap essay a new way of conducting politics. Their very impossibility is their appeal. But the most powerful engine for such a movement — the footnoting an essay thing that gets it off the literature questions ground, shapes and footnoting, solidifies and entrenches it — is always the evocation of hatred. It is, as Hoffer put it, “the most accessible and comprehensive of all unifying elements.” And so Trump launched his campaign by calling undocumented Mexican immigrants a population largely of rapists and murderers. Literature. He moved on to Muslims, both at write an essay of research home and questions, abroad. He has now added to these enemies — with sly brilliance — the footnoting an essay Republican Establishment itself. Ap Essay Questions. And what makes Trump uniquely dangerous in the history of in introduction of extended American politics — with far broader national appeal than, say, Huey Long or George Wallace — is his response to all three enemies.

It’s the literature ap essay questions threat of blunt coercion and dominance. And so after demonizing most undocumented Mexican immigrants, he then vowed to round up and deport all 11 million of them by force. “They have to democracy government go” was the typically blunt phrase he used — and somehow people didn’t immediately recognize the monstrous historical echoes. Literature. The sheer scale of the police and military operation that this policy would entail boggles the what to include mind. Worse, he emphasized, after the literature ap essay questions mass murder in San Bernardino, that even the essay about Muslim-Americans you know intimately may turn around and literature ap essay questions, massacre you at any juncture. To Include In Introduction Of Extended Essay. “There’s something going on,” he declaimed ominously, giving legitimacy to the most hysterical and ugly of human impulses. To call this fascism doesn’t do justice to fascism. Fascism had, in some measure, an ideology and ap essay questions, occasional coherence that Trump utterly lacks. But his movement is clearly fascistic in its demonization of foreigners, its hyping of a threat by a domestic minority (Muslims and Mexicans are the new Jews), its focus on a single supreme leader of what can only be called a cult, and its deep belief in violence and newman doctrine, coercion in ap essay questions, a democracy that has heretofore relied on debate and persuasion. This is the Weimar aspect of our current moment.

Just as the English Civil War ended with a dictatorship under Oliver Cromwell, and development doctrine, the French Revolution gave us Napoleon Bonaparte, and the unstable chaos of Russian democracy yielded to Vladimir Putin, and the most recent burst of literature ap essay Egyptian democracy set the conditions for General el-Sisi’s coup, so our paralyzed, emotional hyper-democracy leads the stumbling, frustrated, angry voter toward the chimerical panacea of footnoting Trump. His response to his third vaunted enemy, the RNC, is also laced with the threat of questions violence. There will be riots in Cleveland if he doesn’t get his way. The RNC will have “a rough time” if it doesn’t cooperate. “Paul Ryan, I don’t know him well, but I’m sure I’m going to get along great with him,” Trump has said. “And if I don’t? He’s gonna have to pay a big price, okay?” The past month has seen delegates to the Cleveland convention receiving death threats; one of Trump’s hatchet men, Roger Stone, has already threatened to publish the hotel rooms of an essay delegates who refuse to vote for Trump.

And what’s notable about Trump’s supporters is precisely what one would expect from members of a mass movement: their intense loyalty. Trump is their man, however inarticulate they are when explaining why. He’s tough, he’s real, and they’ve got his back, especially when he is attacked by all the people they have come to despise: liberal Democrats and literature ap essay, traditional Republicans. At rallies, whenever a protester is hauled out, you can almost sense the rising rage of the collective identity venting itself against a lone dissenter and finding a catharsis of an essay sorts in the brute force a mob can inflict on an individual. Literature Questions. Trump tells the crowd he’d like to punch a protester in the face or have him carried out on a stretcher. No modern politician who has come this close to the presidency has championed violence in this way. It would be disqualifying if our hyper­-democracy hadn’t already abolished disqualifications. And while a critical element of of extended 20th-century fascism — its organized street violence — is missing, you can begin to see it in embryonic form. Ap Essay Questions. The phalanx of essay about the summer bodyguards around Trump grows daily; plainclothes bouncers in the crowds have emerged as pseudo-cops to contain the incipient unrest his candidacy will only continue to literature ap essay questions provoke; supporters have attacked hecklers with sometimes stunning ferocity.

Every time Trump legitimizes potential violence by his supporters by saying it comes from a love of country, he sows the seeds for serious civil unrest. Trump celebrates torture — the one true love of what to include in introduction essay tyrants everywhere — not because it allegedly produces intelligence but because it has a demonstration effect. Literature Ap Essay Questions. At his rallies he has recounted the mythical acts of one General John J. Pershing when confronted with an alleged outbreak of Islamist terrorism in the Philippines. Pershing, in Trump’s telling, lines up 50 Muslim prisoners, swishes a series of bullets in the corpses of freshly slaughtered pigs, and orders his men to put those bullets in write an essay on the fundamentals, their rifles and kill 49 of the ap essay captured Muslim men. He spares one captive solely so he can go back and tell his friends. End of the terrorism problem. In some ways, this story contains all the elements of Trump’s core appeal. Addition Words For Essay. The vexing problem of tackling jihadist terror?

Torture and questions, murder enough terrorists and they will simply go away. The complicated issue of undocumented workers, drawn by jobs many Americans won’t take? Deport every single one of footnoting them and build a wall to stop the rest. Fuck political correctness. As one of his supporters told an questions obtuse reporter at a rally when asked if he supported Trump: “Hell yeah! He’s no-bullshit. All balls.

Fuck you all balls. That’s what I’m about.” And therein lies the appeal of tyrants from the beginning of time. Fuck you all balls. Irrationality with muscle. The racial aspect of an essay on the fundamentals of research this is also unmissable. Literature Ap Essay Questions. When the enemy within is Mexican or Muslim, and your ranks are extremely white, you set up a rubric for a racial conflict.

And what’s truly terrifying about Trump is that he does not seem to an essay shrink from such a prospect; he relishes it. For, like all tyrants, he is literature ap essay utterly lacking in self-control. Sleeping a handful of hours a night, impulsively tweeting in the early hours, improvising madly on subjects he knows nothing about, Trump rants and raves as he surfs an entirely reactive media landscape. Once again, Plato had his temperament down: A tyrant is a man “not having control of words himself [who] attempts to rule others”; a man flooded with fear and love and passion, while having little or no ability to restrain or moderate them; a “real slave to the greatest fawning,” a man who “throughout his entire life … is full of fear, overflowing with convulsions and pains.” Sound familiar? Trump is as mercurial and questions, as unpredictable and footnoting an essay, as emotional as the daily Twitter stream.

And we are contemplating giving him access to literature ap essay questions the nuclear codes. Those who believe that Trump’s ugly, thuggish populism has no chance of democracy form government ever making it to the White House seem to me to be missing this dynamic. Neo-fascist movements do not advance gradually by questions, persuasion; they first transform the terms of the debate, create a new movement based on untrammeled emotion, take over existing institutions, and form essay, then ruthlessly exploit events. And so current poll numbers are only reassuring if you ignore the potential impact of sudden, external events — an economic downturn or a terror attack in a major city in the months before November. I have no doubt, for example, that Trump is literature sincere in his desire to “cut the head off” ISIS, whatever that can possibly mean. But it remains a fact that the interests of ISIS and the Trump campaign are now perfectly aligned. Fear is always the would-be tyrant’s greatest ally. And though Trump’s unfavorables are extraordinarily high (around 65 percent), he is already showing signs of essay about changing his tune, pivoting (fitfully) to the more presidential mode he envisages deploying in the general election. I suspect this will, to some fools on the fence, come as a kind of relief, and may open their minds to him once more. Ap Essay Questions. Tyrants, like mob bosses, know the value of a smile: Precisely because of the fear he’s already generated, you desperately want to believe in footnoting an essay, his new warmth. It’s part of the good-cop-bad-cop routine that will be familiar to anyone who has studied the presidency of Vladimir Putin.

With his appeal to literature ap essay his own base locked up, Trump may well also shift to more moderate stances on social issues like abortion (he already wants to amend the GOP platform to newman essay doctrine a less draconian position) or gay and even transgender rights. He is consistent in his inconsistency, because, for him, winning is what counts. Literature Ap Essay. He has had a real case against Ted Cruz — that the words senator has no base outside ideological-conservative quarters and is even less likely to win a general election. More potently, Trump has a worryingly strong argument against Clinton herself — or “crooked Hillary,” as he now dubs her. His proposition is a simple one. Remember James Carville’s core question in the 1992 election: Change versus more of the same? That sentiment once elected Clinton’s husband; it could also elect her opponent this fall. If you like America as it is, vote Clinton.

After all, she has been a member of the American political elite for a quarter-century. Literature. Clinton, moreover, has shown no ability to inspire or rally anyone but her longtime loyalists. Newman Development. She is lost in literature ap essay questions, the new media and has struggled to put away a 74-year-old socialist who is barely a member of her party. Her own unfavorables are only footnoting, 11 points lower than Trump’s (far higher than Obama’s, John Kerry’s, or Al Gore’s were at this point in the race), and the more she campaigns, the higher her unfavorables go (including in her own party). She has a Gore problem. The idea of welcoming her into your living room for the next four years can seem, at times, positively masochistic. It may be that demographics will save us.

America is no longer an overwhelmingly white country, and Trump’s signature issue — illegal immigration — is the source of his strength but also of his weakness. Nonetheless, it’s worth noting how polling models have consistently misread the breadth of his support, especially in these past few weeks; he will likely bend over ap essay questions, backward to doctrine include minorities in his fall campaign; and those convinced he cannot bring a whole new swath of white voters back into the political process should remember 2004, when Karl Rove helped engineer anti-gay-marriage state constitutional amendments that increased conservative voter turnout. All Trump needs is a sliver of literature ap essay minority votes inspired by the new energy of his campaign and the alleged dominance of the Obama coalition could crack (especially without Obama). Throughout the West these past few years, from France to Britain and to include in introduction, Germany, the polls have kept missing the power of right-wing insurgency. Were Trump to win the White House, the defenses against ap essay questions, him would be weak. He would likely bring a GOP majority in the House, and government essay, Republicans in the Senate would be subjected to almighty popular fury if they stood in his way. The 4-4 stalemate in the Supreme Court would break in Trump’s favor. (In large part, of questions course, this would be due to the GOP’s unprecedented decision to hold a vacancy open “for the people to decide,” another massive hyper-democratic breach in our constitutional defenses.) And if Trump’s policies are checked by what to include essay, other branches of government, how might he react? Just look at his response to the rules of the GOP nomination process.

He’s not interested in literature questions, rules. And he barely understands the Constitution. Footnoting. In one revealing moment earlier this year, when asked what he would do if the literature questions military refused to obey an footnoting illegal order to torture a prisoner, Trump simply insisted that the man would obey: “They won’t refuse. They’re not going to refuse, believe me.” He later amended his remark, but it speaks volumes about his approach to power. Dick Cheney gave illegal orders to torture prisoners and coerced White House lawyers to literature ap essay questions cook up absurd “legal” defenses. Trump would make Cheney’s embrace of the dark side and untrammeled executive power look unambitious.

In his 1935 novel , It Can’t Happen Here , Sinclair Lewis wrote a counterfactual about what would happen if fascism as it was then spreading across Europe were to triumph in America. Essay About Season. It’s not a good novel, but it remains a resonant one. The imagined American fascist leader — a senator called Buzz Windrip — is a “Professional Common Man … But he was the Common Man ­twenty-times-magnified by his oratory, so that while the questions other Commoners could understand his every purpose, which was exactly the same as their own, they saw him towering among them, and they raised hands to him in worship.” He “was vulgar, almost illiterate, a public liar easily detected, and in his ‘ideas’ almost idiotic.” “ ‘I know the Press only too well,’ ” Windrip opines at one point. “ ‘Almost all editors hide away in spider-dens, men without thought of Family or Public Interest … plotting how they can put over their lies, and advance their own positions and fill their greedy pocketbooks.’ ” He is obsessed with the balance of trade and form government, promises instant economic success: “ ‘I shall not be content till this country can produce every single thing we need … We shall have such a balance of trade as will go far to carry out my often-criticized yet completely sound idea of from $3000 to $5000 per year for every single family.’ ” However fantastical and ap essay questions, empty his promises, he nonetheless mesmerizes the newman essay development doctrine party faithful at the nominating convention (held in literature questions, Cleveland!): “Something in the intensity with which Windrip looked at his audience, looked at all of footnoting them, his glance slowly taking them in from the highest-perched seat to the nearest, convinced them that he was talking to each individual, directly and solely; that he wanted to take each of them into his heart; that he was telling them the truths, the imperious and literature questions, dangerous facts, that had been hidden from them.” And all the elites who stood in his way? Crippled by their own failures, demoralized by their crumbling stature, they first mock and then cave.

As one lone journalist laments before the election (he finds himself in a concentration camp afterward): “I’ve got to keep remembering … that Windrip is only the the summer season lightest cork on the whirlpool. Literature Ap Essay Questions. He didn’t plot all this thing. With all the justified discontent there is against write an essay, the smart politicians and the Plush Horses of Plutocracy — oh, if it hadn’t been one Windrip, it’d been another … We had it coming, we Respectables.” And, 81 years later, many of literature ap essay questions us did. An American elite that has presided over about season, massive and increasing public debt, that failed to prevent 9/11, that chose a disastrous war in the Middle East, that allowed financial markets to nearly destroy the global economy, and that is literature questions now so bitterly divided the newman essay development Congress is effectively moot in a constitutional democracy: “We Respectables” deserve a comeuppance. The vital and valid lesson of the Trump phenomenon is that if the ap essay questions elites cannot govern by compromise, someone outside will eventually try to govern by popular passion and brute force. But elites still matter in a democracy.

They matter not because they are democracy’s enemy but because they provide the critical ingredient to save democracy from an essay fundamentals of research itself. The political Establishment may be battered and demoralized, deferential to the algorithms of the web and to the monosyllables of a gifted demagogue, but this is not the questions time to give up on America’s near-unique and stabilizing blend of democracy and newman essay development doctrine, elite responsibility. Literature Questions. The country has endured far harsher times than the present without succumbing to rank demagoguery; it avoided the words fascism that destroyed Europe; it has channeled extraordinary outpourings of democratic energy into constitutional order. Literature. It seems shocking to argue that we need elites in this democratic age — especially with vast inequalities of about the summer season wealth and elite failures all around us. But we need them precisely to protect this precious democracy from questions its own destabilizing excesses. And so those Democrats who are gleefully predicting a Clinton landslide in November need to both check their complacency and understand that the Trump question really isn’t a cause for an essay on the fundamentals of research partisan Schadenfreude anymore. It’s much more dangerous than that. Literature Questions. Those still backing the demagogue of the left, Bernie Sanders, might want to reflect that their critique of Clinton’s experience and expertise — and essay doctrine, their facile conflation of that with corruption — is only playing into Trump’s hands. Ap Essay Questions. That it will fall to Clinton to temper her party’s ambitions will be uncomfortable to watch, since her willingness to compromise and write an essay on the fundamentals, equivocate is literature ap essay precisely what many Americans find so distrustful. And yet she may soon be all we have left to counter the threat. She needs to what essay grasp the literature ap essay lethality of her foe, moderate the kind of identity politics that unwittingly empowers him, make an unapologetic case that experience and moderation are not vices, address much more directly the anxieties of the white working class—and Democrats must listen.

More to the point, those Republicans desperately trying to use the long-standing rules of their own nominating process to thwart this monster deserve our passionate support, not our disdain. This is not the moment to remind them that they partly brought this on themselves. This is a moment to offer solidarity, especially as the odds are increasingly stacked against development, them. Ted Cruz and John Kasich faced their decisive battle in Indiana on literature questions May 3. It was the bitter end. The Republican delegates who are trying to protect their party from the whims of an footnoting an essay outsider demagogue are, at this moment, doing what they ought to be doing to prevent civil and racial unrest, an questions international conflict, and a constitutional crisis. These GOP elites have every right to deploy whatever rules or procedural roadblocks they can muster, and they should refuse to be intimidated. And if they fail in Indiana or Cleveland, as they likely will, they need, quite simply, to disown their party’s candidate. About The Summer. They should resist any temptation to loyally back the ap essay questions nominee or to democracy form government essay sit this election out. They must take the fight to Trump at every opportunity, unite with Democrats and Independents against him, and be prepared to sacrifice one election in order to save their party and their country. For Trump is not just a wacky politician of the far right, or a riveting television spectacle, or a Twitter phenom and bizarre working-class hero. He is not just another candidate to be parsed and analyzed by TV pundits in the same breath as all the others.

In terms of our liberal democracy and literature ap essay questions, constitutional order, Trump is an extinction-level event. Democracy Form. It’s long past time we started treating him as such. *This article appeared in the May 2, 2016 issue of New York Magazine. Well, it’s shit. That’s right, shit! Shit may just be the most functional word in the English language. You can smoke shit, buy shit, sell shit, lose shit, find shit, forget shit, and ap essay, tell others to for essay eat shit. Some people know their shit, while others can’t tell the difference between shit and shineola.

There are lucky shits, dumb shits, and questions, crazy shits. There is bull shit, horse shit, and what, chicken shit. You can throw shit, sling shit, catch shit, shoot the ap essay questions shit, or duck when the essay about the summer shit hits the fan. You can give a shit or serve shit on a shingle. You can find yourself in deep shit or be happier than a pig in shit.

Some days are colder than shit, some days are hotter than shit, and some days are just plain shitty. Some music sounds like shit, things can look like shit, and there are times when you feel like shit. You can have too much shit, not enough shit, the right shit, the wrong shit or a lot of weird shit. You can carry shit, have a mountain of shit, or find yourself up shit creek without a paddle. Sometimes everything you touch turns to shit and literature, other times you fall in a bucket of shit and come out newman essay doctrine, smelling like a rose. When you stop to consider all the facts, it’s the basic building block of the English language.

And remember, once you know your shit, you don’t need to know anything else!! You could pass this along, if you give a shit; or not do so if you don’t give a shit! Life Alert Necklaces and the Dinosaur. by Lee Ann Bledsoe. CAMERA FOCUSES in on an old woman sprawled on her living room floor. “Help me! Help me!” she cries. Literature Questions. “I’ve fallen and I can’t get up.” Camera zooms in to essay about the summer capture the woman’s tear-stained face. Questions. She looks needy and helpless as she grovels on the floor. For God’s sake , I think, put her down!

Euthanazia. A club. Find a zombie. Anything to development get the whining to stop! CAMERA PANS the room and captures the terrified faces of ap essay two young children as they run to grandma’s side. “Grandma, grandma, are you okay?” the youngest one cries. Grandma repeats: “Help me! Help, me! I’ve fallen and I can’t get up!” The kids already know she’s fallen; grandma’s on the fucking floor for God’s sake! Evidently the old woman wants her grandkids traumatized for life as well as terrified in this moment. Then a compassionate, soothing voice begins the sales pitch: “Life Alert necklaces … blah, blah, blah.”

I absolutely DETEST commercials that prey on the summer our fears to sell stuff. So can you imagine how pissed I am that I’m probably going to have to buy a device that advertises to literature questions the world I’m so old and feeble I need a team of experts to help me survive my next fall? I fell tonight. Two of my great grandkids were with me: Chrissy is three and James Mervin is 18 months. I tripped over Fancy Puzzles, a cat who lives with me but belongs to what to include in introduction of extended essay someone else. (Fancy’s another story.) Anyway, Chrissie was terrified. She panicked and screamed, then cried for 30 minutes.

I felt horrible for scaring her so badly. And I wasn’t even hurt. My three great grandkids spend a lot of time ay my house but the literature ap essay questions youngest two are with me five days a week. I don’t mean to brag–or maybe I do–but I am the best great grandmother on write an essay on the fundamentals of research the planet. Literature Ap Essay Questions. What would happen if I had hurt myself? What would happen if I had a stroke? No neighbor’s house to run to; all the houses around me sit empty nine or 10 months of the year. My internet and phone (a landline) are out as much as on during the stormy season. Maybe I should get another cell phone?

I have seven or eight of the damn things now, sitting in newman development, the bottom drawer of my desk. My kids and literature, grandkids keep buying them for me. I’m always grateful for the new device; absolutely thrilled to own a gadget that would allow everyone in the world to reach me, anytime of the day or night, anywhere I might happen to be. I can’t imagine anything more intrusive. How do people stand it? Nevertheless, I thank the kids sweetly, play around with the latest phone until the battery dies, and for essay, then add it to my growing collection. But I might have to reconsider; can a three-year-old kid use a cell phone? Or should I order one of those Life Alert necklaces? At this point in my life, I’d rather fitted for Depends.

Why couldn’t the commercial have the old woman climbing a ladder, preparing to clean her gutters? I do that twice a year. She could fondle the necklace, look squarely into the camera and say in a strong voice: “This will come in ap essay, handy if I fuck this up.” I could buy into a commercial like that. Lee Ann Bledsoe says: “I was a fairly successful professional writer 100 years ago working as a columnist for “The Oregonian” and “The Columbian,” writing humorous verse for several greeting card companies, and freelancing for “Alcoholism” and “Health” magazines. Went back to school to earn a degree in fine arts, got sidetracked and ended up graduating four years later with a masters in sociology. For the next three decades I worked in community mental health, specializing in the DMIO (“dangerously mentally ill offender”) population.

Fun group. One of those guys took a real dislike to me in May of 2011, effectively ending my career and footnoting, the bleeding heart phase of my life. I’m extremely grateful he didn’t end me, as well. Now I’m writing again. I’ve just finished “The Unlikely Survivalist,” the first book in a three book series. Other than that, I hate liver–even smothered in ap essay questions, onions–love dogs, gardening without gloves, reading and footnoting an essay, writing.”