Igcse english literature past papers 2011

Baroque And Rococo Art Essays and Research Papers. English 2011. The Baroque Art era is classified by many as Early Baroque , High Baroque , and case, Late . Baroque periods. The Rococo Art era is often said to be part of the english literature Late Baroque period. The time frame of the Rococo era and whether it is one and the same as the Late Baroque period have been in debate through the years. Although the Baroque Art and the Rococo Art periods are sometimes classified as one in relations the same, they are actually quite distinct and unique. The Baroque Art period was between 1600 and the. Baroque , Baroque music , Italy 1084 Words | 3 Pages. Baroque and Rococo Analysis Joel Hernandez Western Governor’s University Baroque . Art Period The Baroque art period was between 1600 and igcse english literature past papers 2011, 1700 and originated from the Portuguese.

In this period, art was expressed in form of sculpture, architecture, and music whereby different artists were able to use these mentioned form of art to pass on an intended message to the community (Visual Arts , 2011). One of the factors that motivated this period of art was the support that it had. Art , Art history , Arts 1507 Words | 4 Pages. People Observation. Baroque 1) Rococo was a style preeminently evident in small works such as furniture, utensils, and igcse english literature 2011, small sculptures. Essay. . Rococo is the last style of the French monarchies and was carefree and playful. Rococo art centered on romance and love and emphasized tonality, softness and rich colors. Rococo art contrasted Baroque art as it tended to avoid heroic events and religious iconography and emphasized Hedonism. English Papers. The word Rococo derives from Rocaille, which means shell, and lament of icarus essay, Rococo art used curvaceous. Baroque , French Revolution , Jacques-Louis David 1220 Words | 4 Pages. Comparison of Baroque and Rococo Styles.

HUM – 121 March 5, 2012 Comparison of Baroque and Rococo styles . Introduction Premises and characteristics of Baroque Caravaggio's Amor Victorious Emergence of Rococo Boucher's Nude on a Sofa Comparison of Baroque and Rococo styles Bibliography There have been different artistic peaks throughout the history of humanity influenced by specific social, political or religious. Art history , Baroque , Caravaggio 1561 Words | 5 Pages. Renaissance, Baroque, and igcse papers, Rococo Architecture. deliberately textured. The rustication of a palazzo is harald grethe often differentiated between stories. The Late Renaissance featured a general relaxation of the . severe simplicity and order of the High Renaissance. The most radical strain of Late Renaissance art was mannerism: the deliberate pursuit of novelty and complexity, often to the point of bizarreness.

In mannerist architecture, classical forms are skewed, exaggerated, and literature 2011, misplaced, and classical balance and harmony are sometimes distorted. Of Icarus Essay. By upsetting. Baroque , Baroque music , Florence 1852 Words | 5 Pages. Baroque, Rococo, and igcse english literature past papers 2011, Neoclassicism: Comparison and Contrast. Rococo was an art style that originated in France in the mid-17th century. Rococo itself evolved from the harald dissertation earlier . Baroque period, and english literature papers, shared several elements with it. Indeed, Rococo is government relations often referred to as Late Baroque for this reason. Both placed a heavy emphasis on english papers 2011, ornate, highly sculpted detail and ornamentation, especially in regards to architecture and phd thesis on steganography, sculpture.

Likewise both featured artwork rooted in more realistic depictions of people. However, they were also different in several important. Baroque , History of painting , Italy 782 Words | 3 Pages. Baroque one big misshapen pearl STYLE ARTISTS and igcse literature 2011, IMAGES VOCAB HISTORICAL NOTE Baroque art falls into the . period of Counter-Reformation led by on steganography the Catholic church against past papers the Protestants. Observation Essay. Much of the Baroque art , especially in Italy, reflects reaction to Mannerism, but also the english past papers 2011 social turmoil of the drosophila research time. Literature. According to the Council of Trent and the Catholic church artworks should be a clear, intelligible subject realistically interpreted in relations studies order to english 2011, stimulate piety.

This was part of the reason. Of Icarus. Andre Le Notre , Baroque , Caravaggio 823 Words | 7 Pages. ? BAROQUE ART Art Appreciation –HUMA 205-1202A-05 Janice Miller AIU Abstract . Baroque art is presented as an art style. Baroque art style is such diversity within in the Baroque period 1600-1770 because of the relationship to the era’s border and intellectual tendencies there was three important effects on the art . Igcse English Past Papers. Which are, western Christianity, religious tensions, and the division of the Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The Baroque artist appealed to their. Annibale Carracci , Art , Baroque 1046 Words | 9 Pages. Baroque Art in Europe and North America. Baroque Art in to john Europe and North America Throughout this research paper the topic is going to be along the lines of the . Baroque Art in Europe and english literature, North America, which comes from chapter nineteen of public government case our Art History book.

The main purpose is to review major ideas and principles in this chapter by writing an analysis of certain points that were highlighted. For example, certain techniques that were used to igcse past 2011, define the Baroque Art , major sculptures, architectures, and paintings, and also just some. Baroque , Caravaggio , Chiaroscuro 1439 Words | 4 Pages. Baroque Art Styles Amber Eagler American Intercontinental University Abstract The author of this paper has chosen three . works of art from the Baroque Style. The three works of art are as follows; Pieta, The Entombment, and Rembrandt’s Belshazzar. The author gives her insight about the painterly appearance of the works of art . In this paper, we will analyze these three paintings and how they fit into the Baroque time period. Baroque Art Styles This paper will start with an explanation. Annibale Carracci , Baroque , Caravaggio 1364 Words | 4 Pages. Works of Art: Baroque, Pop Art ,and Abstract Expressionism. Works of Art : Baroque , Pop art and Abstract expressionism Work of harald art is a product of fine . arts that includes the painting and sculptures.

It is igcse english literature a wide range of human activities that includes music, literature etc. The three works of art that are from same style are Baroque , Pop Art , and Abstract Expressionist. Description of the essay drosophila research works including the style: In general, the term Baroque was derived from the Portuguese word which means “a pearl that has irregular and unpredictable shape”. It. Abstract expressionism , Art , Baroque 702 Words | 3 Pages. ? Unit 4 Individual Project Art Appreciation: HUMA 205- 1401A- 07 February 1, 2014 In this work we will be talking about . Baroque Art . The three artists I will be talking about are Michelangelo, Rembrandt, and Peter Paul Rubens. Baroque Art Rembrandt van Rijn- 1609- 1689, another of the english past papers 2011 Netherlands famous artist in art history, painted one of his most famous paintings, “The Blinding of Samson” in 1636. He. Caravaggio , Chiaroscuro , Florence 1376 Words | 4 Pages. Baroque Art: Protestant vs. Public Government Relations Case Studies. Catholic. Baroque : Protestant vs.

Catholic Before the purity of Neoclassicism, even before the carefree artists of the Rococo era, there . Igcse English Literature Past Papers. was the dramatic and emotive Baroque . The term baroque is said to have been derived from the public affairs Portuguese word for an irregular pearl, and is certainly an adequate description. In the wake of igcse past papers what has become known as the essay Protest Reformation, the Catholic Church held the infamous Council of Trent. This eighteen year deliberation addressed several aspects of Catholicism. Baroque , Baroque music , Caravaggio 1047 Words | 3 Pages. Mannerism and Rococo Architecture. STYLE FILE Origin Italy France Major Influences *Italian art , painting and architecture *Light-hearted themes on painting architecture . and sculpture. *‘feminine style’- furniture, tapestry, clothing, interior design Notable Features *Intellectual and igcse papers, artificial, elongated forms, exaggerated and manipulated space * sophisticated, light and airy, elegant and curvy Key Facts *a reaction against the used of certainty in building structures *something out of the ‘conventional’ *no. Baroque , Gothic architecture , History of painting 1864 Words | 7 Pages. History of Art through the Art Institute - Baroque Art. Notes - Sept 15, 2013 The Art Institute of Chicago Building was 1893 structure built as the World's Congress Auxiliary Building and was . built for the Columbian Expo. Essay Drosophila Research. 5The Art Institute of Chicago opened as the Chicago Academy of Fine Arts on May 24, 1879.

Chicago is a young city. 1577 painting… Artist moves with color El Greko, born Domenikos Theotokopoulos, was a painter, sculptor and architect of the Spanish Renaissance. El Greco (The Greek) was a nickname, a reference to english literature papers, his national Greek. Baroque , Caravaggio , History of painting 2025 Words | 7 Pages. Art from dissertation Baroque Period Through the Postmodern Era. Art from Baroque Period through the Postmodern Era Renaissance art history began as civic history; it was an literature past 2011, . expression of civic pride.

The first such history was Filippo Villani's De origine civitatis Florentiae et eiusdem famosis civibus, written about 1381-82. Letter Adams Essay. Florentine artists revived an art that was almost dead, Villani asserts, just as Dante had restored poetry after its decline in the Middle Ages. The revival was begun by Cimabue and completed by Giotto, who equalled the ancient painters. Baroque , Florence , Gian Lorenzo Bernini 1489 Words | 4 Pages. In each period of art history, there is a story. For Baroque art , the story is why the period has been classically . English Past. misunderstood. In the early 1600s, artists and phd thesis, intellectuals worked in academies to explore humanism begun in the Renaissance, classical thought (i.e. Plato and literature past 2011, Aristotle), and new trends in human thought and expression. But why does the word “ Baroque ” have a negative history? The original translations of this word include Italian for “tortuous medieval pedantry” and Portuguese for “deformed. Andy Warhol , Baroque , Jasper Johns 1984 Words | 6 Pages.

Baroque Period Art Robin Rahuba There are many famous painters from the Baroque period. The ones I chosen to . Observation Essay. write about are Rembrandt, Rubens and Rosa. English Literature Papers. Each had a different style of painting; Rembrandt painted with a more gentle feeling and emotion than any other painter of his time. Rubens painted with an air of pure drama in every brush stroke he made. Rosa scenes are known for their picturesquely wild, romantic qualities. Dissertation. Despite having different painting styles, each one painted a. Art history , Baroque , Caravaggio 1364 Words | 5 Pages. The Baroque Era Rebecca Mozingo Mr. Craton Period 8 The Baroque Era was a period for artistic style that used exaggerated . motion and clear and easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature and dance and english papers 2011, music. It started around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of Europe and ended around the 1750’s. Lament Essay. The Baroque era was encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church, which had decided at the time of the Council of Trent.

Baroque , Baroque music , Claudio Monteverdi 1523 Words | 4 Pages. Igcse English Literature Past. Renaissance and baroque comparison. AND BAROQUE COMPARISON 2 RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE COMPARISON 5 Running head: RENAISSANCE AND BAROQUE COMPARISON 1 . Renaissance and Baroque Comparison There are two eras in the history of Western Art that had many achievements from art to music and literature. The period following the middle ages called the Renaissance was a cultural movement that began from the late 13th century to the 17th century. The arts , music and literature that came out of government studies this period helped in developing the literature Baroque period. Baroque , Florence , Italy 856 Words | 3 Pages. D. Essay Drosophila Research. Pasturel Arts 2C Winter 2013 Midterm Review Date of Quiz: Thursday,January 24 Date of Midterm: Wednesday, February 13 The following are . images which you will need to know for the exam.

I will ask you to call to mind the artist, or the title, or the igcse literature papers date, or the affairs government studies period. You should memorize all of the information provided. English Past Papers 2011. * 1. Bemini. Baldacchino. St. Phd Thesis. Peter's, Rome. 1624-1633.

Italian Baroqu6. pg.673. 2.Bemini. Igcse English. Ecstasy of St. Theresa. Comaro Chapel. 1645-1652. ItalianBaroque. On Steganography. pg. 675. Amsterdam , Artemisia Gentileschi , Baroque 704 Words | 4 Pages. ?The Pearls of the Baroque The Baroque was a period of counter- reformation where the church and igcse english past papers, its teachings became the new . Harald Grethe Dissertation. focal point of praise in works of art , sculpture and architecture.

Spanning the 17th Century, which ranges from 1600-1720, the Baroque was a platform to igcse literature past, celebrate spirituality. Those who were artistically inclined during this period made it their goal to express their love of religion and classicism through extravagance and letter to john essay, restraint of the figures, clothing and emotions in. Artemisia Gentileschi , Baroque , Caravaggio 2569 Words | 9 Pages. Baroque style period Baroque is a period of artistic style that started around 1600 in Rome, Italy, and spread throughout the . majority of Europe. ? baroque period, era in the history of the Western arts roughly coinciding with the 17th century. Its earliest manifestations, which occurred in Italy, date from the latter decades of the 16th century, while in igcse literature papers 2011 some regions, notably Germany and colonial South America, certain of phd thesis on steganography its culminating achievements did not occur until the 18th century.

The. Annibale Carracci , Baroque , Baroque music 943 Words | 12 Pages. On a recent visit to igcse 2011, the Metropolitan Museum of Art , I took a tour of the people observation museum with a lecturer. During the tour, the leader lectured on igcse literature, . People. particular paintings. She told the know history behind each shown painting. She also gave the history of the period in which the painting was painted. The lecturer also helped everyone to understand what the colors in the paintings brought to each painting. While viewing the many paintings, the first one that caught my eye was Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier and. Baroque , Baroque music , History of painting 869 Words | 3 Pages.

History of Art Final Paper I think the most important part of art is understanding how styles developed over the years and what . influenced those developments. Some art movements develop based on political context, while others are created as a contrast to the current popular art movement. From a historical standpoint, I feel that portraiture is the best way to capture the essence of everything throughout the past. If I were an art director, I would choose to a portraiture display to show the progression. Baroque , History of english literature past papers 2011 painting , Impressionism 1665 Words | 5 Pages. looks at the artistic movement known as Rococo in France after the death of Louis XIV. To John Essay. Artwork by France’s Jean-Antoine Watteau, and . Jean-Antoine Fragonard, as well as artwork done by Italian artist Giovanni Antonio Pellegrini, and will be discussed to english papers, demonstrate that Rococo and the themes of the letter pictures represented a form of escapism for the aristocracy in Europe. According to Pignatti (1988, p.203), the decorative art and igcse literature papers, design movement known as Rococo featured light-hearted romance and care-free. 18th century , Antoine Watteau , Francois Boucher 2558 Words | 7 Pages.

A. Social Class in Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical and Romantic Art. class in Baroque , Rococo , Neoclassical and Romantic Art Since the beginning of human civilization, there were . always differences in life depending on whether you have a lot of money, a decent amount of letter to john money, or barely enough money to live on. Art is a great way to compare and contrast the igcse english papers 2011 differences of how people lived back in the day whether they were swimming in public affairs government studies money as Kings and Queens, or doing everything they could to scrape up some coins to buy bread for igcse papers their family. In the Baroque , Rococo. Florence , House of government relations studies Medici , Marie de' Medici 734 Words | 2 Pages. Mannerism in Northern Europe and Spain a. The Renaissance in Northern Europe in the 16th century 5) Chapter 24: The Baroque in Italy and . Spain a. The Baroque 6) Chapter 25: The Baroque in Northern Europe a. The Baroque 7) Erwin Panofsky, Iconography and Iconology (on reserve) 8) Chapter 26: Rococo to Neoclassicism: The 18th Century in Europe and America a. The Baroque , continued; Art of the Enlightenment 9) Chapter 27: Romanticism, Realism, Photography: Europe and America, 1800-1870 a. Romanticism. Florence , Italian painters , Italian Renaissance 402 Words | 4 Pages. development of painting through the past 2011 following periods: baroque , neoclassicism, realism, impressionism, post-impressionism, cubism, geometric . abstraction, and surrealism. They make up the history of painting and help to understand the stages of its development and why modern painting looks like it looks.

Baroque : (1600 - 1750) Baroque was a characteristic of a style in art and architecture developed in Europe from the early 17th to mid-18th century. Baroque artwork combines dramatic compositions, beautiful. To John Adams. Abstract art , Art movements , Cubism 1440 Words | 5 Pages. Mrs. Gratz January 4, 2015 Challenge II Baroque Art : What is literature past 2011 it and why do we care about harald grethe dissertation, it? The Baroque is often . thought of as a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, and music. The style began around 1600 in english literature past papers Rome, Italy and spread to most of Europe. It’s defined as “a style of European architecture, music, and art of the 17th and 18th centuries that followed. Baroque , Baroque music , Caravaggio 381 Words | 2 Pages. ?The baroque art was a type of painting that was very beautiful and at the same time it make to look the work or piece of . art very amazing, this was because it was particularly from this type of art that it show a lot of drama, emotionalism and essay drosophila research, also a very clear image of what you were trying to show, this method make you lose in the art piece because of the realism in which it is.

This type of art was also a type of architecture that was also very beautiful and with a lot of details, that it makes. Catholic Church , Florence , Italian Renaissance 505 Words | 2 Pages. art . The discussion will include a formal analysis of each of the two artworks mentioned. The analysis will cover the materials and igcse literature 2011, techniques . used during this period of Greek art , the relation of certain styles to one another, the function of the artworks, its subject matter, and the social or religious meaning and context. Public Government Case. As illustrated in the marble sculptures of the Winged Victory (Nike) of Samothrace and the Aphrodite, Pan and Eros, the 2011 Hellenistic era exposed such expansion with dramatic. Aphrodite , Greek mythology , Hellenistic civilization 1924 Words | 6 Pages. Chapter one Baroque art what is baroque art and its features Baroque is an artistic . style prevalent from the late 16th century to the early 18th century in Europe.It is drosophila current most often defined as the igcse literature papers dominant style of phd thesis on steganography art in Europe between the Mannerist and Rococo eras, a style characterized by dynamic movement, overt emotion and self-confident rhetoric.The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church, which had decided at the time of the Council of Trent. 2nd millennium , Baroque , Baroque music 4328 Words | 12 Pages.

Baroque Art It’s hard to make a distinction in which the beginning of the Baroque period is clearly distinguished . from literature past 2011 that of the late Renaissance. Nonetheless, Baroque art is emotional, decorative and a direct result of the phd thesis Counter-Reformation movement in english papers Europe. During the letter adams essay Baroque period, there was a dramatic religious split in the Church with the formation of Protestantism. Catholics reacted with the Counter-Reformation to revitalize Catholicism. English 2011. They needed to attract viewers with religious. Art history , Baroque , Baroque music 705 Words | 2 Pages. How Rococo and Neoclassicism Illustrate the Process of people Deciding The artists Jean-Honore Fragonard and english, Jaques-Louis David both successfully . embody their respective stylistic differences. Fragonard's style of painting is Rococo , which is characterized by its softness, asymmetry and curviness. Contrasting these ideals is David's style of painting, Neo-Classicism. Neo-Classicism is synonymous with strong gestures, symmetry, and solidness. Public Affairs Studies. Two works that best exemplify the ideals of each style.

Art , Female , History of painting 1454 Words | 4 Pages. ?Artistic Expression in the Baroque Era The Baroque era began in the 1600s and ended around the 1750s and it was an era in . which artists were beginning to igcse english literature past 2011, focus more on detail and intricate designs as well as perfect their skills in lament of icarus painting realistic fabrics. This Era was also widely known as the enlightenment or the Age of Newton. This era is known to be different from the previous ones by 2011 the currents of nationalism and individualism. In general, Baroque artwork is very passionate, intricate. Art , Baroque , Baroque music 1022 Words | 4 Pages. January 2013 By Taseen Fahim | Music PD.

3 | Mr. Garibaldi Tabita Paul Ittleson | The Baroque Era of dissertation Music | Taseen Fahim . January 2013 Mr. Garibaldi Tabita Paul Ittleson Music PD. 3 The Baroque Era of Music The Baroque period of European musical history falls between the late Renaissance and early Classical periods, that is, roughly a half century between 1600 and 1750. English. During the Renaissance, Europe had assimilated the humanism and rationalism of Greco-Roman civilization.

Baroque , Baroque music , Chamber music 1327 Words | 4 Pages. ? Baroque The Baroque is public affairs government relations case a period of artistic style that started around 1600 in Rome, Italy, and english literature past papers 2011, spread throughout the majority . of Europe during the 17th and on steganography, 18th centuries. In informal usage, the past 2011 word baroque describes something that is elaborate and highly detailed. The Baroque age is roughly divided into three parts: Early Baroque , High Baroque and Late Baroque . The Late baroque is synonymous with the Rococo period, which followed. The Baroque style is observation characterized be exaggerated motion. Baroque , Baroque music , Caravaggio 389 Words | 2 Pages. ? Styles of Fine Arts Style Period Artists of the period Features Renaissance [r?|neis?ns] 14th -16th cc. Donatello, Sandro . Botticelli, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Masaccio, Michelangelo idea of ‘humanism’; revival of ancient Greek and literature past papers 2011, Roman culture; the harald prevailing themes were religious and biblical ones (connected with Christianity); expressive imagery glorifying Man as the english literature 2011 crown of the Lord’s creation; keeping to the anatomical proportions of a human body. Mannerism [|m?n?rizm] . Art Nouveau , Florence , History of painting 502 Words | 3 Pages.

The Baroque Period Unit 5 IP 5 HUMA205-1202B Nicole Woodford 05/27/2012 Abstract When looking at the outwork of this time I was . Drosophila Current Research. shocked to see how life like a lot of igcse literature papers this artist made their paintings. These show the harald grethe dissertation times in which was going on during the time of Jesus death and the feelings in which the literature past papers 2011 people where going through. The Baroque Period The artists Rembrandt, Caravaggio, and Rubens all created the Baroque period. The Baroque period was a religious time in which the people. Art , Baroque , Caravaggio 1696 Words | 5 Pages. Professor Hauch Humanities: 15th to 20th Centuries: 352685 07 November 2011 Rococo vs.

Neoclassical France is known for being one of many . artist powerhouses of the 18th century. The art styles reflected the attitude and culture of the time. Two major styles, Rococo and Neoclassical varied in adams similarities and differences such as theme, style, and whether the artist was influenced politically or philosophical. It’s true that Rococo was taken by storm over night at the dawn of Neoclassical. However both. 18th century , Ancient Greece , Antoine Watteau 1120 Words | 3 Pages. Aau (Academy of Arts University) Art History I - M10.1-10.2, M11.1. brief explanation of the english literature past 2011 positive effects of a free art market.

What might be the down side to such a system? Why would some artists have . preferred to work for lament of icarus as established patron such as the Church or Monarchy? Artistically, in my opinion, there is no down-side to a free market. Again, some additional “positives” include the ability for anyone to follow their passion, art , in whichever shape and form they viewed it. The notion of igcse english papers 2011 a free art market squanders judgments; constraints of phd thesis right and.

Art , Baroque , Caravaggio 1121 Words | 4 Pages. Igcse Literature Past. Comparison/Contrast Renaisssance and people observation, Baroque. The baroque and renaissance periods are two different periods. The renaissance period rolled into english literature the baroque era. There were . changes made over the years from the baroque to the renaissance period.

Differences in style accumulated along with views of adams essay art and igcse 2011, music. Baroque era covers the period between 1600 and 1750 beginning with Monte Verdi (birth of opera) and ended with deaths of Bach and Handel. The term baroque music is borrowed from the drosophila research art history. English Papers. It follows the Renaissance era (1400-1600). Baroque , Baroque music , Early modern period 970 Words | 3 Pages. Comparisons of the Renaissance and Baroque Periods. ? Comparisons of the Renaissance and Baroque Periods Western Governors University Comparisons of the . Renaissance and Baroque Periods It was the 14th century and Europe was shrouded in creative and intellectual “darkness” as a result of corrupt and oppressive religion. People lived with the burden of affairs relations twisted theological rules that permeated both business and personal lives. In a small town in Italy, a group of educators and philosophers started re-examining. Baroque , Baroque music , Italy 887 Words | 3 Pages. Running Head: Baroque Works of igcse english literature 2011 Art IP 5 Running Head: Baroque Works of Art . 1 Baroque Works of Art The Baroque period of art was from the 1600’s to the 1700’s.

This period in art history began with the Catholic Church launching an people observation essay, internal reformation to establish clear definitions of the church’s theologies, as well as their doctrines. A sector of the church’s reform was to educate the members. Baroque , Caravaggio , Chiaroscuro 1439 Words | 5 Pages. Woman as Artist, Subject, or Patron in Baroque Art. were the igcse english past guidelines set forth for art following the Council of phd thesis Trent: Clarity, realism and emotional stimulus. Igcse English Past Papers 2011. Many artists fulfilled these . requirements in their own ways: Rubens employed his mastery of drawing, while Caravaggio masked his apparent lack of lament essay skill by inventing a new way of painting, tenebrism (Caravaggism). While clarity could be established relatively easily, this doesn't mean images had to be simple.

One of the most complex elements of Baroque painting is the use of women as subjects. Artemisia Gentileschi , Baroque , Florence 1254 Words | 4 Pages. ? Baroque Art and Architecture I INTRODUCTION Baroque Art and Architecture, the style dominating . the art and architecture of Europe and certain European colonies in the Americas throughout the 1600s, and in literature past 2011 some places, until 1750. A number of its characteristics continue in the art and architecture of the letter to john essay first half of the english past papers 18th century, although this period is generally termed rococo (see Rococo Style) and corresponds roughly with King Louis XV of France. Of Icarus. Manifestations of baroque art appear. Art history , Baroque , Baroque architecture 4016 Words | 12 Pages. century two very important cultural trends were able to emerge into the world of arts . These were the english literature past Rococo style, followed by . the people Neoclassical style.

Although both completely different from each other, both helped to clear the igcse past papers 2011 path toward the modern world of art we have today. The differences of the two can be expressed through the on steganography origin of creation, stylistic paintings, and architectural developments. The Rococo style arose in France in igcse past papers the waning years of the phd thesis Sun King's reign and was created. Igcse Past. Baroque , Decorative arts , Gothic Revival architecture 696 Words | 2 Pages. ?The Baroque Period The Baroque Period The Baroque term comes from the public affairs government Portuguese word barroco, which means . misshapen pearl Jean-Jacques Rousseau defined baroque music as that in which the harmony is confused, charged with modulations and dissonances, the melody is harsh and little natural, the intonation difficult, and the movement constrained. The Baroque period was highly decorated and it reflects on english literature past papers 2011, the elaborate nature and complexity of the current research music compositions. Others have likened Baroque. Baroque , Baroque music , Claudio Monteverdi 1820 Words | 6 Pages. vocal composition. Among these works, Quantz composed ‘Konzert in G major’.

Quantz began making flutes in 1739. He made eighteen instruments that can now . be found in museums in Germany, the USA and english past 2011, Japan. | Quantz's flutes are unlike other baroque flutes in lament essay a number of interesting ways. In 1724 (whilst in Paris) he invented a second key for D#. Although the Eb key already existed on the flute, Quantz thought that adding a D# would help with tuning and intonation. Even though the Quantz flute. Baroque , Baroque music , Claudio Monteverdi 2027 Words | 7 Pages. Literature Past Papers 2011. ? Baroque in the Vatican Throughout the ages, civilizations around the world have expressed themselves through various kinds of . art such as dance, music, painting, and of icarus essay, architecture.

Styles of art vary from culture to igcse english literature past papers, culture, and over time each style evolves into something completely new. Harald Dissertation. In the mid 1500’s, there was a change in culture that completely reshaped the European world. Known as the igcse literature papers 2011 Renaissance, individuals persevered to recreate, and reinterpret the forgotten knowledge and accomplishments. Baroque , Baroque architecture , Baroque music 1366 Words | 4 Pages. THE BAROQUE AGE Social and Cultural Background Baroque is harald a term borrowed from the visual arts and igcse literature past 2011, . People Observation. one that is used in many different senses. The Baroque Era applies to igcse english past papers 2011, the years between 1600 and phd thesis on steganography, 1750. The most famous composers of this time were Bach, Handel, Vivaldi and Teleman. Politically it was an age of magnificent absolute Monarch's. The most magnificent of all was Louis XIV of France.

Louis ruled from literature past papers 2011 1634 until 1713. Essay Drosophila Current. During this time the igcse english need to create a national. Antonio Vivaldi , Baroque , Baroque music 1307 Words | 5 Pages. In every way Baroque music is like a teen-ager. Ok, maybe not in public affairs relations case studies the pimply-faced-criticize-everything-even-though-you-don't-pay-for-it kind of . way we have come to expect from english past papers 2011 our modern teen-agers. But what is a teen-ager anyway?

Simply put; a teen-ager is letter to john adams no longer a child and not yet an adult. It is that awkward in-between stage when all the rules get broken, nothing ever seems to literature, fit, and emotions fluctuate wildly. This is exactly how it was with the Baroque Era of Music. To put this into. People. Baroque , Baroque music , Counterpoint 1892 Words | 6 Pages. believe, exactly how it was with the Baroque Era of Music. When Was the Baroque Era?

The official company line on when the . Baroque Era started, which you will find in every book, encyclopedia, or bubble-gum wrapper on the subject, was the year 1600. The event which earned 1600 this enviable distinction, as far as I can tell, was the simple fact that it has two zeros stuck on the end of it, thus making it fairly easy to remember. In contrast, the end of the papers 2011 Baroque Era was definitively set by Johann. Banana split , Baroque , Baroque music 1710 Words | 5 Pages. Mannerism, which literally means style, was a period in European art that began in essay Italy in the final years of the Renaissance and lasted . until it was replaced by Baroque , about 1520 to 1600. During this time, young artists were trying to establish their own style, with a new approach to painting and interpretation of the english literature papers 2011 human experience. They had their difficulties as it were. Virtually everything that could be done, had been done. The artists of the essay current Renaissance, masters such as Raphael. Antonio da Correggio , Art , Baroque 1106 Words | 4 Pages. culture generated a new artistic style, known as “The Baroque ”. The term literally means irregular pearl and is use to describe the vibrant . and igcse literature, wild artistic creativity of the seventeenth century. The newly created Baroque style grew out of the Catholic “Counter-Reformation”.

Later on as the style spread to people observation, northern Europe, it became popular at royal places that use this new style as a symbol freshly emerging monarchies. As the book explains, Baroque style exhibits a combination of power, massiveness. Baroque , Catholic Church , Italy 660 Words | 2 Pages. ?Unit 3 – Music of the igcse literature Baroque 1. Name two important visual artists (such as painters) and phd thesis on steganography, also two important writers of literature (such as . Papers 2011. poets) from the Baroque Period. Do not name musicians. (Visual Artists) - Peter Paul Rubens Artemisia Gentileschi / (Writers)- John Fletcher and Francis Beaumont 2. Harald Grethe Dissertation. Write a paragraph about “The Baroque Style”. The baroque style was very well suited to the wishes of the aristocracy, who were enormously rich and powerful during the igcse past papers 2011 seventeenth and people essay, eighteenth. Baroque , Baroque music , Choir 1009 Words | 3 Pages. ?The rococo style became exceptionally fashionable in the early eighteenth-century court world following the reign of Louis XIV. . Rococo comes from the French word rocaille, which refers to rock and shell garden ornamentation.

Rococo art , an 2011, evolution of the baroque style, pays significant attention to the sensual curves and essay drosophila research, soft-hued colors of garden-like elements inspired by flowers, vines, and shells. Past 2011. The bourgeoisie in the eighteenth-century increasingly favored these more delicate patterns of. Antoine Watteau , Baroque , Francois Boucher 701 Words | 2 Pages. Baroque / Classical music Though the essay Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century, Baroque and Classical music were the main music forms . of western culture. Even though they were so close together in time they were still very different but also very similar. Baroque music predates Classical, though towards the end of the Baroque period there is a bit of an overlap as it evolved into the Classical period. It is generally agreed that the Baroque period began after the english 2011 Renaissance in people essay approximately 1600.

Baroque. Igcse Papers. Baroque , Baroque music , Classical music 718 Words | 3 Pages. Phd Thesis On Steganography. ?The term Baroque means an english literature past 2011, irregularly shaped complex form. It came from the irregularly shaped pearl meaning unnatural and strange. This is . completely different, from letter essay a description of the music of the igcse literature papers 2011 time. Musical styles greatly different from artistic styles of the time making it virtually impossible to draw parallels between the to john two.

Instead, one needs to draw independent conclusions about Baroque music. One example which we heard in class was Handel's oratorio called Solomon, Act III. The.

The Damned Human Race – Mark Twain Essay. (Published in 1905) I have been studying the traits and dispositions of the “lower animals” (so-called), and contrasting them with the traits and dispositions of man. Igcse Literature Past Papers 2011! I find the result humiliating to me. For it obliges me to renounce my allegiance to harald grethe dissertation, the Darwinian theory of the Ascent of Man from the Lower Animals; since it now seems plain to me that the igcse past papers, theory ought to be vacated in favor of a new and truer one, this new and lament, truer one to be named the Descent of Man from the Higher Animals.?In proceeding toward this unpleasant conclusion I have not guessed or speculated or conjectured, but have used what is commonly called the scientific method. That is to say, I have subjected every postulate that presented itself to the crucial test of actual experiment, and have adopted it or rejected it according to the result. Thus I verified and papers 2011, established each step of my course in its turn before advancing to the next. People Essay! These experiments were made painstakingly in the London Zoological Gardens, and covered many months of painstaking and fatiguing work. Before particularizing any of the experiments, I wish to state one or two things which seem to igcse english papers 2011, more properly belong in this place than further along. This in the interest of clearness. The massed experiments established to my satisfaction certain generalizations, to wit:

1. Research! That the human race is of one distinct species. It exhibits slight variations–in color, stature, mental caliber, and so on–due to climate, environment, and so forth; but it is a species by literature papers itself, and not to be confounded with any other.?2. Phd Thesis On Steganography! That the quadrupeds are a distinct family, also. English! This family exibits variations–in color, size, food preferences and so on; but it is a family by itself.?3. Harald Grethe! That the other families–the birds, the fishes, the insects, the reptiles, etc.–are more or less distinct, also. They are in the procession. They are links in the chain which stretches down from the higher animals to literature past papers, man at the bottom. Some of my experiments were quite curious. In the essay, course of my reading I had come across a case where, many years ago, some hunters on our Great Plains organized a buffalo hunt for the entertainment of an English earl–that, and to provide some fresh meat for igcse english past 2011, his larder. They had charming sport.

They killed seventy-two of those great animals; and harald grethe, ate part of one of them and left the seventy-one to rot. In order to determine the difference between an anaconda and an earl–if any–I caused seven young calves to be turned into the anaconda’s cage. The grateful reptile immediately crushed one of them and english literature, swallowed it, then lay back satisfied. Essay! It showed no further interest in the calves, and no disposition to harm them. I tried this experiment with other anacondas; always with the same result. The fact stood proven that the igcse english 2011, difference between an earl and an anaconda is essay current that the earl is cruel and the anaconda isn’t; and that the earl wantonly destroys what he has no use for, but the anaconda doesn’t. This seemed to suggest that the anaconda was not descended from the earl. English Literature Papers! It also seemed to suggest that the earl was descended from the anaconda, and had lost a great deal in the translation. I was aware that many men who have accumulated more millions of on steganography, money than they can ever use have shown a rabid hunger for more, and english literature past papers 2011, have not scrupled to cheat the ignorant and the helpless out of their poor servings in order to on steganography, partially appease that appetite. I furnished a hundred different kinds of igcse english literature, wild and tame animals the opportunity to to john adams, accumulate vast stores of igcse past papers 2011, food, but none of them would do it. The squirrels and of icarus, bees and igcse papers, certain birds made accumulations, but stopped when they had gathered a winter’s supply, and could not be persuaded to add to it either honestly or by of icarus chicane.

In order to igcse literature 2011, bolster up a tottering reputation the ant pretended to store up supplies, but I was not deceived. I know the ant. These experiments convinced me that there is essay current research this difference between man and the higher animals: he is avaricious and miserly, they are not. In the course of my experiments I convinced myself that among the animals man is the literature papers, only one that harbors insults and injuries, broods over them, waits till a chance offers, then takes revenge. Observation! The passion of revenge is unknown to the higher animals.

Roosters keep harems, but it is by consent of their concubines; therefore no harm is done. Men keep harems, but it is by brute force, privileged by atrocious laws which the other sex were allowed no hand in making. Igcse Past Papers 2011! In this matter man occupies a far lower place than the rooster.?Cats are loose in their morals, but not consciously so. Man, in his descent from the cat, has brought the cat’s looseness with him but has left the unconsciousness behind–the saving grace which excuses the cat. The cat is innocent, man is not.

Indecency, vulgarity, obscenity–these are strictly confined to man; he invented them. Among the higher animals there is no trace of them. Harald Grethe! They hide nothing; they are not ashamed. Man, with his soiled mind, covers himself. He will not even enter a drawing room with his breast and igcse papers, back naked, so alive are he and current, his mates to english papers, indecent suggestion. Man is “The Animal that Laughs.” But so does the monkey, as Mr. Darwin pointed out; and so does the lament of icarus, Australian bird that is called the laughing jackass. No–Man is the only Animal that Blushes.

He is the only one that does it–or has occasion to. At the head of this article we see how “three monks were burnt to death” a few weeks ago, and a prior “put to death with atrocious cruelty.” Do we inquire into igcse english literature the details? No; or we should find out that the prior was subjected to unprintable mutilations. Man–when he is a North American Indian–gouges out his prisoner’s eyes; when he is King John, with a nephew to letter, render untroublesome, he uses a red-hot iron; when he is a religious zealot dealing with heretics in the Middle Ages, he skins his captive alive and scatters salt on his back; in the first Richard’s time he shuts up a multitude of Jew families in a tower and sets fire to english 2011, it; in lament Columbus’s time he captures a family of Spanish Jews and–but that is not printable; in our day in England a man is fined ten shillings for beating his mother nearly to death with a chair, and another man is fined forty shillings for having four pheasant eggs in literature papers 2011 his possession without being able to dissertation, satisfactorily explain how he got them. Of all the animals, man is the only one that is cruel. English Literature Papers 2011! He is the only one that inflicts pain for the pleasure of doing it. It is a trait that is phd thesis not known to the higher animals. The cat plays with the frightened mouse; but she has this excuse, that she does not know that the mouse is english literature past suffering. The cat is moderate–unhumanly moderate: she only scares the mouse, she does not hurt it; she doesn’t dig out its eyes, or tear off its skin, or drive splinters under its nails–man-fashion; when she is done playing with it she makes a sudden meal of it and puts it out of its trouble.

Man is the Cruel Animal. He alone is of that distinction. The higher animals engage in individual fights, but never in organized masses. Man is the only animal that deals in that atrocity of atrocities, War. He is the only one that gathers his brethren about him and goes forth in relations studies cold blood and with calm pulse to igcse english literature, exterminate his kind. He is the people essay, only animal that for sordid wages will march out, as the Hessians did in our Revolution, and as the boyish Prince Napoleon did in the Zulu war, and help to slaughter strangers of his own species who have done him no harm and with whom he has no quarrel. Man is the igcse english literature past papers, only animal that robs his helpless fellow of his country–takes possession of it and drives him out of it or destroys him. Man has done this in all the letter adams, ages.

There is not an acre of literature past 2011, ground on the globe that is in possession of its rightful owner, or that has not been taken away from owner after owner, cycle after cycle, by force and lament, bloodshed. Man is the igcse english literature papers, only Slave. And he is the only animal who enslaves. He has always been a slave in one form or another, and has always held other slaves in bondage under him in one way or another. Government Studies! In our day he is igcse english 2011 always some man’s slave for wages, and does that man’s work; and this slave has other slaves under him for minor wages, and they do his work. The higher animals are the only ones who exclusively do their own work and provide their own living.?Man is the on steganography, only Patriot. He sets himself apart in his own country, under his own flag, and sneers at the other nations, and keeps multitudinous uniformed assassins on hand at heavy expense to igcse english literature papers 2011, grab slices of other people’s countries, and keep them from grabbing slices of his. And in the intervals between campaigns he washes the blood off his hands and works for “the universal brotherhood of man”–with his mouth. Mark Twain and Joseph Jefferson in Nikola Tesla’s South Fifth Avenue Laboratory, 1894, Tesla’s image is letter to john adams essay blurred between the two men. Man is the Religious Animal. He is the only Religious Animal.

He is the only animal that has the True Religion–several of them. He is the only animal that loves his neighbor as himself, and cuts his throat if his theology isn’t straight. He has made a graveyard of the globe in trying his honest best to smooth his brother’s path to happiness and heaven. He was at it in the time of the igcse english past 2011, Caesars, he was at it in Mahomet’s time, he was at it in the time of the Inquisition, he was at it in France a couple of centuries, he was at it in England in Mary’s day, he has been at it ever since he first saw the light, he is at it today in Crete–as per the telegrams quoted above–he will be at it somewhere else tomorrow. The higher animals have no religion. And we are told that they are going to be left out, in the Hereafter. I wonder why? It seems questionable taste.

Man is the Reasoning Animal. Such is the claim. I think it is harald grethe open to dispute. Indeed, my experiments have proven to me that he is the Unreasoning Animal. Note his history, as sketched above. It seems plain to me that whatever he is igcse literature papers 2011 his is not a reasoning animal. His record is the fantastic record of a maniac. I consider that the strongest count against his intelligence is the fact that with that record back of him he blandly sets himself up as the lament essay, head animal of the lot: whereas by his own standards he is the bottom one. In truth, man is english incurably foolish. Simple things which the other animals easily learn, he is incapable of learning.

Among my experiments was this. In an relations studies, hour I taught a cat and a dog to literature past papers 2011, be friends. I put them in public case studies a cage. In another hour I taught them to igcse past papers 2011, be friends with a rabbit. In the course of two days I was able to add a fox, a goose, a squirrel and affairs government relations case studies, some doves.

Finally a monkey. English Past Papers! They lived together in peace; even affectionately. Next, in another cage I confined an Irish Catholic from Tipperary, and public affairs relations studies, as soon as he seemed tame I added a Scotch Presbytarian from Aberdeen. Next a Turk from Constantinople; a Greek Christian from Crete; an Armenian; a Methodist from the wilds of Arkansas; a Buddhist from China; a Brahman from Benares. Finally, a Salvation Army Colonel from Wapping. Then I stayed away two whole days. When I came back to note results, the cage of igcse english literature past papers 2011, Higher Animals was all right, but in the other there was but a chaos of gory odds and ends of turbans and fezzes and plaids and bones and flesh–not a specimen left alive.

These Reasoning Animals had disagreed on a theological detail and carried the matter to observation, a Higher Court. One is obliged to concede that in true loftiness of character, Man cannot claim to approach even the meanest of the Higher Animals. It is english past papers 2011 plain that he is constitutionally incapable of approaching that altitude; that he is constitutionally afflicted with a Defect which must make such approach forever impossible, for it is manifest that this defect is permanent in him, indestructible, ineradicable.?I find this Defect to letter to john adams, be the Moral Sense. He is the only animal that has it. It is the secret of his degredation. It is the quality which enables him to english literature past, do wrong. It has no other office.

It is letter to john adams essay incapable of performing any other function. Literature 2011! It could never have been intended to perform any other. Without it, man could do no wrong. He would rise at once to the level of the Higher Animals. Since the Moral Sense has but one office, the one capacity–to enable man to people, do wrong–it is plainly without value to him. It is as valueless to him as is disease. In fact, it manifestly is a disease. Rabies is igcse past papers 2011 bad, but it is not so bad as this disease. Rabies enables a man to do a bad, but it is not so bad as this disease. Rabies enables a man to do a thing which he could not do when in a healthy state: kill his neighbor with a poisonous bite. No one is the better man for having rabies.

The Moral Sense enables a man to lament of icarus, do wrong. It enables him to do wrong in a thousand ways. Rabies is an innocent disease, compared to the Moral Sense. No one, then, can be the better man for having the Moral Sense. What, now, do we find the Primal Curse to have been? Plainly what it was in the beginning: the infliction upon man of the Moral Sense; the ability to distinguish good from evil; and with it, necessarily, the ability to do evil; for there can be no evil act without the english, presence of consciousness of lament of icarus, it in the doer of igcse english past, it.

And so I find that we have descended and grethe dissertation, degenerated, from some far ancestor–some microscopic atom wandering at its pleasure between the literature past, mighty horizons of a drop of water perchance–insect by insect, animal by animal, reptile by reptile, down the long highway of smirchless innocence, till we have reached the phd thesis, bottom stage of development–namable as the Human Being. Below us–nothing. Nothing but the Frenchman. There is only one possible stage below the Moral Sense; that is the Immoral Sense. The Frenchman has it. Man is but a little lower than the angels. This definitely locates him. He is between the angels and the French. Man seems to igcse literature papers, be a rickety poor sort of a thing, any way you take him; a kind of British Museum of infirmities and inferiorities. Research! He is english always undergoing repairs.

A machine that was as unreliable as he is would have no market. On top of his specialty–the Moral Sense–are piled a multitude of minor infirmities; such a multitude, indeed, that one may broadly call them countless. Current Research! The higher animals get their teeth without pain or inconvenience. Man gets his through months and months of cruel torture; and at igcse english, a time of life when he is but ill able to bear it. As soon as he has got them they must all be pulled out again, for they were of no value in the first place, not worth the loss of a night’s rest. The second set will answer for a while, by being reinforced occasionally with rubber or plugged up with gold; but he will never ger a set which can really be depended on till a dentist makes him one.

This set will be called “false” teeth–as if he had ever worn any other kind. In a wild state–a natural state–the Higher Animals have a few diseases; diseases of little consequence; the main one is old age. But man starts in as a child and lives on diseases till the end, as a regular diet. He has mumps, measles, whooping cough, croup, tonsillitis, diptheria, scarlet fever, almost as a matter of course. Afterward, as he goes along, his life continues to be threatened at every turn: by lament of icarus colds, coughs, asthma, bronchitis, itch, cholera, cancer, consumption, yellow fever, bilious fever, typhus fevers, hay fever, ague, chilblains, piles, inflammation of the entrails, indigestion, toothache, earache, deafness, dumbness, blindness, influenza, chicken pox, cowpox, smallpox, liver compliant, constipation, bloody flux, warts, pimples, boils, carbuncles, abscesses, bunions, corns, tumors, fistulas, pneumonia, softening of the brain, melancholia and english, fifteen other kinds of insanity; dysentery, jaundice, diseases of the heart, the bones, the skin, the scalp, the spleen, the kidneys, the nerves, the brain, the blood; scrofula, paralysis, leprosy, neuralgia, palsy, fits, headache, thirteen kinds of rheumatism, forty-six of gout, and a formidable supply of affairs government, gross and igcse 2011, unprintable disorders of one sort and another. Also–but why continue the list?

The mere names of the agents appointed to keep this shackly machine out of repair would hide him from sight if printed on his body in the smallest type known to the founder’s art. Letter Adams! He is but a basket of pestilent corruption provided for the support and igcse english literature past, entertainment of swarming armies of bacilli–armies commissioned to rot him and destroy him, and each army equipped with a special detail of the work. The process of harald grethe dissertation, waylaying him, persecuting him, rotting him, killing him, begins with his first breath, and there is no mercy, no pity, no truce till he draws his last one. Look at the workmanship of him, in english literature past certain of essay, its particulars. What are his tonsils for? They perform no useful function; they have no value.

They have no business there. They are but a trap. They have but the one office, the igcse english past 2011, one industry: to provide tonsillitis and quinsy and such things for the possessor of public government studies, them. And what is the igcse literature past 2011, vermiform appendix for? It has no value; it cannot perform any useful service. It is but an ambuscaded enemy whose sole interest in life is to lie in wait for stray grapeseeds and current, employ them to breed strangulated hernia. And what are the male’s mammals for? For business, they are out of the question; as an ornament, they are a mistake. Igcse English Past Papers 2011! What is his beard for? It performs no useful function; it is a nuisance and a discomfort; all nations hate it; all nations persecute it with a razor.

And because it is a nuisance and dissertation, a discomfort, Nature never allows the supply of it to fall short, in any man’s case, between puberty and the grave. You never see a man baldheaded on his chin. But his hair! It is a graceful ornament, it is a comfort, it is the best of all protections against certain perilous ailments, man prizes it above emeralds and rubies. And because of these things Nature puts it on, half the time, so that it won’t stay. Man’s sight, smell, hearing, sense of igcse english papers, locality–how inferior they are. The condor sees a corpse at five miles; man has no telescope that can do it. The bloodhound follows a scent that is two days old. Affairs Government Relations! The robin hears the english literature papers 2011, earthworm burrowing his course under the ground. The cat, deported in a closed basket, finds its way home again through twenty miles of country which it has never seen.

Certain functions lodged in phd thesis on steganography the other sex perform in a lamentably inferior way as compared with the english literature 2011, performance of the same functions in the Higher Animals. In the human being, menstruation, gestation and parturition are terms which stand for horrors. In the dissertation, Higher Animals these things are hardly even inconveniences. For style, look at english literature, the Bengal tiger–that ideal of grace, beauty, physical perfection, majesty. And then look at Man–that poor thing. Essay Drosophila Research! He is the Animal of the Wig, the Trepanned Skull, the Ear Trumpet, the igcse literature past papers 2011, Glass Eye, the Pasteboard Nose, the Porcelain Teeth, the Silver Windpipe, the Wooden Leg–a creature that is mended and patched all over, from drosophila current top to bottom. If he can’t get renewals of his bric-a-brac in the next world, what will he look like? He has just one stupendous superiority. In his intellect he is supreme. The Higher Animals cannot touch him there.

It is curious, it is noteworthy, that no heaven has ever been offered him wherein his one sole superiority was provided with a chance to enjoy itself. Even when he himself has imagined a heaven, he has never made provision in it for intellectual joys. It is a striking omission. Igcse Past! It seems a tacit confession that heavens are provided for the Higher Animals alone. Drosophila Current Research! This is matter for thought; and for serious thought. And it is full of a grim suggestion: that we are not as important, perhaps, as we had all along supposed we were.

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Perhaps the english papers 2011 Company name and then all the related roles under that and public affairs case studies, the times I did those jobs? I was always the Executive Admin, but I did other jobs during that period. Yes, your suggestion is correct. Start with the company name and included the related jobs with their own bullet points underneath. Good luck!

Consider trying the ‘Job Hopper’ or the ‘Executive.’ They should able to fit all your jobs nicely. Ive never had a job so what should I use? Most of the templates above would suit your situation, but we suggest trying the Career Changer template because it emphasizes skills over the dates of your professional experience. (https://resumegenius.com/resume-templates/career-level-life-situation-templates#career-changer-templates) Best of luck! We suggest using the igcse english ‘Gatsby’ Template. Good luck with grad school! As far as style, we suggest our ‘Professional’ template. Public Affairs Government! In terms of format, if you want to include your restaurant experience, then you might want to consider using a functional format:https://resumegenius.com/resume-formats/functional-samples-writing-guide. Hope this helps! We suggest using our ‘Entry-Level’ template.

Good luck with the internship! Good Day Resume Genius.I’m a midwife by profession an has worked in a military hospital for 16 years in KSA. I’m trying to apply as a home based ESL educator and an email respondent . Since I’m from the medical profession, I’m having difficulty in choosing the perfect resume.The skill I know is more on literature papers, the medical.,clerical which involes data entry for appointments and summary, interpreter and my part time informal english lessons to native speaking arabs. What template should I use? Try the ‘Murray’ template. Good luck! Hello. Which is good for cabin crew applicant?

I have no many work experience in service. So i want to highlight the lament of icarus other things. Thanks #128578; Take a look at our Flight Attendant resume sample: https://resumegenius.com/resume-samples/flight-attendant-resume-example You can download it and input your own information. Which template would you recommend for a career in education? Check out our teacher resume samples: https://resumegenius.com/resume-samples/teacher-resume-example You can download them and input your own experience.

Try using the ‘Freeman’ template. Best of luck on the promotion! Hi! What resume template would you recommend for a college freshman trying to apply for a competitive summer program with the USDA and South Dakota State University? Sound like the ‘Entry-Level’ template would be a good fit for what you’re trying to do. Good luck with the igcse literature summer program. Hi! Which resume template would you recommend for essay, someone trying to tap into the finance and accounting market. Looking for an entry-level position. You should go with the ‘Entry-Level’ template.

Good luck with the job hunt. I have worked 32+ years as a nurse, the last 4 years taking care of my elderly father and online work. Igcse Literature Past Papers 2011! Now seeking to letter adams get back into the job market for english literature 2011, extra income, not necessarily in the health field, just to earn some income and socialize. Harald Grethe! What resume do you suggest? Try the ‘Job Hopper’ template. Good luck with your job search! Hi! What resume template would you recommend for igcse literature past papers, a 9th grader trying to apply for lament of icarus, a doctor (any)??

Apparently, resume making and igcse literature papers, interviewing is our project for the fourth quarter this year. Observation Essay! I couldn’t find any clear examples on the web, and I was hoping you could help me out with what template I should use.. Try using the literature past papers ‘Elegant 2.0’ template. Good luck on your project. Yes, if you click the adams essay View all Resume Designs button and click the download link for the template pack of your choice. If you’ve never written a resume before, I’d recommend checking out our “How to Write a Resume” guide to get a clearer idea (it’s much more comprehensive than any answer I can give here). https://resumegenius.com/how-to-write-a-resume. Hit us up with any follow-up questions after giving that a read we’ll see if we can help further! Good luck! Hey there Margaret,

In order to literature past best understand which template works, it’s a good idea to check out which resume format fits your particular needs; then you can take it from there. https://resumegenius.com/resume-formats. All of the templates were created by professional resume writers, so it’s hard to go wrong with any of them — it just depends on harald dissertation, your preference. Igcse Literature! Good luck! It really depends on what job you’re applying for. Since you have substantial work experience, try quantifying that in your resume (think: any numbers that a hiring manager can look at and better understand what you accomplished during your time working there). Public Government! Check out this page and choose the one you find most fitting, that should be a good start: https://resumegenius.com/resume-formats. Good luck on the job hunt! Hey there hbil036, This way, you can focus on your skills qualifications critical to the job application.

As an aside, you may want to look into whether you’re qualified to english literature papers get back into accounting after that many years outside of the field. I understand that some regulations and rules change over essay drosophila current research, the years — it may just be a matter of literature past papers 2011 taking a test or updating your certifications, but I’m not certain. If that doesn’t seem to be a problem then go with the functional resume for harald, sure. Good luck on the job hunt! If you are lacking in major experience, I’d recommend using a reverse chronological format for your resume. Our “Classic” template on this page should do the english literature 2011 trick: https://resumegenius.com/resume-templates/ Good luck at the job fair! I recommend you first check out our internship resume sample page: https://resumegenius.com/resume-samples/internship-resume-example. Afterwards, feel free to choose any format – just use a comprehensive education section instead of a professional experience section, and you should be good. Good luck landing that internship! Share Free Downloadable Resume Templates Our code geeks and lament, HR experts are proud to introduce our new Free Resume Builder software to help you land more interviews in today’s competitive job market.

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Feeding the World Today and Tomorrow: The Importance of Food Science and Technology. An IFT Scientific Review. Institute of Food Technologists, 525 W. Van Buren St., Suite 1000, Chicago, IL 60607. Direct inquiries to author Newsome (E-mail: rlnewsome@ift.org). Search for more papers by this author. Institute of literature 2011, Food Technologists, 525 W. Government Relations Studies? Van Buren St., Suite 1000, Chicago, IL 60607. Direct inquiries to author Newsome (E-mail: rlnewsome@ift.org).

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Institute of Food Technologists, 525 W. Van Buren St., Suite 1000, Chicago, IL 60607. Direct inquiries to author Newsome (E-mail: rlnewsome@ift.org). Search for more papers by this author. Institute of Food Technologists, 525 W. Van Buren St., Suite 1000, Chicago, IL 60607. Direct inquiries to author Newsome (E-mail: rlnewsome@ift.org).

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Search for more papers by this author. Institute of Food Technologists, 525 W. Dissertation? Van Buren St., Suite 1000, Chicago, IL 60607. English Literature Past 2011? Direct inquiries to author Newsome (E-mail: rlnewsome@ift.org). Search for more papers by this author. First published: 26 August 2010 Full publication history DOI: 10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00127.x View/save citation Cited by (CrossRef): 61 articles Check for updates. by Philip E. Nelson, 2007 World Food Prize Laureate; Professor Emeritus, Food Science Dept., Purdue Univ.

Just as society has evolved over time, our food system has also evolved over centuries into a global system of immense size and complexity. The commitment of food science and technology professionals to advancing the science of food, ensuring a safe and letter adams, abundant food supply, and contributing to healthier people everywhere is integral to that evolution. Food scientists and technologists are versatile, interdisciplinary, and igcse english literature, collaborative practitioners in a profession at harald, the crossroads of scientific and english papers 2011, technological developments. Phd Thesis On Steganography? As the food system has drastically changed, from one centered around family food production on individual farms and igcse english literature, home food preservation to the modern system of today, most people are not connected to their food nor are they familiar with agricultural production and food manufacturing designed for better food safety and quality. The Institute of phd thesis, Food Technologistsa nonprofit scientific society of individual members engaged in food science, food technology, and related professions in literature past, industry, academia, and governmenthas the mission to advance the science of food and the long-range vision to ensure a safe and abundant food supply contributing to letter essay, healthier people everywhere. IFT convened a task force and called on contributing authors to english past papers, develop this scientific review to inform the general public about the importance and benefits of food science and technology in IFT's efforts to feed a growing world. The main objective of this review is to serve as a foundational resource for public outreach and education and to address misperceptions and misinformation about processed foods.

The intended audience includes those who desire to observation, know more about the application of science and english literature papers, technology to meet society's food needs and government, those involved in public education and outreach. It is IFT's hope that the reader will gain a better understanding of the goals or purposes for various applications of science and technology in the food system, and an appreciation for the complexity of the modern food supply. Abstract:  This Institute of Food Technologists scientific review describes the scientific and technological achievements that made possible the modern production-to-consumption food system capable of feeding nearly 7 billion people, and igcse english 2011, it also discusses the observation essay, promising potential of ongoing technological advancements to enhance the food supply even further and to increase the health and wellness of the growing global population. This review begins with a historical perspective that summarizes the parallel developments of igcse past papers 2011, agriculture and harald grethe dissertation, food technology, from the beginnings of modern society to english literature past papers 2011, the present. A section on food manufacturing explains why food is essay, processed and details various food processing methods that ensure food safety and preserve the igcse english literature past 2011, quality of products. A section about potential solutions to future challenges briefly discusses ways in which scientists, the food industry, and policy makers are striving to improve the food supply for a healthier population and feed the future. Applications of to john essay, science and technology within the food system have allowed production of foods in adequate quantities to meet the needs of society, as it has evolved. Literature Past? Today, our production-to-consumption food system is complex, and our food is largely safe, tasty, nutritious, abundant, diverse, convenient, and less costly and more readily accessible than ever before.

Scientific and technological advancements must be accelerated and applied in developed and developing nations alike, if we are to feed a growing world population. The world has progressed through huntergatherer, agricultural, and industrial stages to provider of goods and lament of icarus, services. English Past? This progression has been catalyzed by the cultural and social evolution of mankind and the need to phd thesis on steganography, solve specific societal issues, such as the past, need for preservation to free people from current research, foraging for food, and the need for adequate nutrition via consistent food supply year round. These forces led to the development of the food industry, which has contributed immensely to the basis for a healthy human civilization and helped society prosper and flourish (Lund 1989). Development of food science and technology. According to Harvard Univ. biological anthropologist Richard Wrangham, food processing was launched about 2 million years ago by a distant ancestor who discovered cooking, the original form of food processing (Wrangham 2009).

Later, but still during prehistoric times, cooking was augmented by fermenting, drying, preserving with salt, and other primitive forms of food processing, which allowed groups and communities to form and survive. Humans thus first learned how to cook food, then how to igcse past papers, transform, preserve, and store it safely. This experience-based technology led to modern food processing (Hall 1989; Floros 2008). Much later, the observation, domestication of plants and land cultivation became widespread, and at the end of the last Ice Age, humans revolutionized eating meat by domesticating animals for food. Thus, plant and animal agriculture also contributed to improving the human condition. Study of every ancient civilization clearly shows that throughout history humans overcame hunger and disease, not only by harvesting food from literature past, a cultivated land but also by processing it with sophisticated methods. Current? For example, the 3 most important foods in Ancient Greecebread, olive oil, and winewere all products of complicated processing that transformed perishable, unpalatable, or hardly edible raw materials into literature past 2011, safe, flavorful, nutritious, stable, and harald, enjoyable foods (Floros 2004).

Today, our production-to-consumption food system is complex, and our food is largely safe, tasty, nutritious, abundant, diverse, convenient, and less costly and more readily accessible than ever before. This vast food system includes agricultural production and harvesting, holding and storing of raw materials, food manufacturing (formulation, food processing, and packaging), transportation and distribution, retailing, foodservice, and food preparation in english, the home. Contemporary food science and technology contributed greatly to the success of this modern food system by integrating biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, materials science, microbiology, nutrition, toxicology, biotechnology, genomics, computer science, and of icarus, many other disciplines to solve difficult problems, such as resolving nutritional deficiencies and enhancing food safety. The impact of modern food manufacturing methods is evident in today's food supply. Food quality can be maintained or even improved, and food safety can be enhanced. Sensitive nutrients can be preserved, important vitamins and past, minerals can be added, toxins and antinutrients (substances such as phytate that limit bioavailability of essay, nutrients) can be removed, and foods can be designed to optimize health and reduce the risk of disease. Waste and product loss can be reduced, and distribution around the world can be facilitated to allow seasonal availability of many foods. Modern food manufacturing also often improves the quality of life for literature past, individuals with specific health conditions, offering modified foods to meet their needs (for example, sugar-free foods sweetened with an alternative sweetener for people with diabetes). Controversies about processed foods. Although today the public generally embraces and enjoys key benefits of the food supplyvalue, consistency, and conveniencesome suggest that the cost to society of obtaining these benefits is too high.

Negative perceptions about “processed foods” also exist, especially among consumers in of icarus essay, the United States. A range of factors contributes to these perceptions. Igcse English Papers 2011? These include uneasiness with technology, low level of science literacy, labeling, and advertising that have at times taken advantage of adams, food additive or ingredient controversies, influence on perception of voluntary compared with involuntary nature of risk, and high level of food availability (Slovic 1987; Clydesdale 1989; Hall 1989). Other factors contributing to negative public perceptions about processed foods include the igcse past papers 2011, increasing prevalence of obesity in many industrialized or developed countries, use of chemicals in letter essay, production or additives in foods, little personal contact between consumers and the agricultural and food manufacturing sectors, food safety issues, and concern that specific ingredients (particularly salt), may contribute to illnesses or impact childhood development (Schmidt 2009). Some books on food in the popular press have implied that the food industry has incorrectly applied the igcse english papers, knowledge of food science and technology to develop processed foods that result in drosophila, poor dietary habits. The premise of some critics of processed foods is that knowledge of igcse english past papers, chemistry and the physical properties of food constituents allow the food industry to make processed foods that result in overeating and cause the general population to abandon whole foods. The argument is essay current, stretched further to suggest that the english literature past 2011, development of processed foods is responsible for promoting bad eating habits and essay, is the cause of chronic disease. Such an argument is specious, because personal preferences, choice, will power, and lifestyle factor into igcse literature past 2011, the decision of what and how much to eat. To John Adams Essay? The challenge surrounding the connection between lifestyles and health (that is, diet and chronic disease) is discussed in the next section of this review. During the 2009 World Summit on Food Security, it was recognized that by 2050 food production must increase by about 70%34% higher than it is todayto feed the anticipated 9 billion people (FAO 2009a).

This projected population increase is igcse english past papers, expected to involve an additional annual consumption of nearly 1 billion metric tons of cereals for food and feed and 200 million metric tons of meat. Another challenge is the large, growing food security gap in certain places around the world. As much as half of the food grown and harvested in underdeveloped and developing countries never gets consumed, partly because proper handling, processing, packaging, and distribution methods are lacking. Starvation and nutritional deficiencies in vitamins, minerals, protein, and calories are still prevalent in all regions of the world, including the public affairs relations case studies, United States. As a consequence, science-based improvements in agricultural production, food science and technology, and food distribution systems are critically important to igcse english, decreasing this gap.

In addition, energy and resource conservation is becoming increasingly critical. To provide sufficient food for everyone in a sustainable and environmentally responsible manner, without compromising our precious natural resources, agricultural production must increase significantly from today's levels and food manufacturing systems must become more efficient, use less energy, generate less waste, and produce food with extended shelf life. Although scientific and on steganography, technological achievements in the 20th century made it possible to solve nutritional deficiencies, address food safety and quality, and feed nearly 7 billion people, further advancements are needed to resolve the challenges of sustainably feeding the igcse past, growing future population in industrialized and phd thesis, developing nations alike. English Literature? In fact, to meet the food needs of the future, it is critically important that scientific and technological advancements be accelerated and applied in both the agricultural and public affairs relations case, the food manufacturing sectors. The next section of this review, “Evolution of the Production-to-Consumption Food System,” summarizes the parallel developments of agriculture and food manufacturing from the beginnings of igcse past, modern society (the Neolithic revolution) to observation essay, the present; it also addresses the current diet and chronic disease challenge. The subsequent section, “Food Processing: A Critical Element,” explains why food is processed and details the various types of food processing operations that are important for different food manufacturing purposes. Past? Then the following section, “Looking to the Future,” outlines suggestions to improve our food supply for a healthier population, and briefly discusses the various roles that researchers, consumers, the food industry, and phd thesis on steganography, policy makers play in improving the food supply for better health; it also addresses the promises that further advancements and application of technologies in the food system hold for the future. Evolution of the Production-to-Consumption Food System. The life of the huntergatherer was generally uncertain, dangerous, and hardscrabble. Thomas Hobbes, in his  Leviathan  (I561), described life in those times as “the life of man in a state of igcse past papers, nature, that is, solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and letter to john essay, short.” Agriculture transformed that existence by making available a far larger and generally more reliable source of food, in large part through domestication and improvement of plants and english literature papers, animals. Domestication leads to civilization.

Domestication is the process of bringing a species under the control of humans and gradually changing it through careful selection, mating, and current, handling so that it is more useful to people. Domesticated species are renewable sources that provide humans with food and igcse english past, other benefits. At the grethe, end of the last Ice Age, humans domesticated plants and animals, permitting the development of agriculture, producing food more efficiently than in hunter-gatherer societies, and igcse past papers 2011, improving the people essay, human condition. Literature 2011? Domestication did not appear all at once, but rather over drosophila current research, a substantial period of time, perhaps hundreds of literature past, years. For some species, domestication occurred independently in more than one location.

For animals, the process may have begun almost accidentally, as by raising a captured young animal after its mother had been killed and observing its behavior and response to various treatments. Domesticated plants and animals spread from their sites of origin through trade and war. The domestication of plants and people, animals occurred primarily on the Eurasian continent (Smith 1998). A prominent early site was in the Middle East, the so-called Fertile Crescent, stretching from Palestine to southern Turkey, and down the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, where barley, wheat, and igcse english papers, lentils were domesticated as early as 10000 y ago and sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs were domesticated around 8000 y ago. Rice, millet, and soy were domesticated in East Asia; millet, sorghum, and African rice in sub-Saharan Africa; potato, sweet potato, corn (maize), squash, and beans in the Americas; Asiatic (water) buffaloes, chickens, ducks, cattle, and pigs in the Indian subcontinent and affairs relations, East Asia; pigs, rabbits, and geese in Europe; and llamas, alpacas, guinea pigs, and turkeys in the Americas. The introduction of literature papers 2011, herding and farming was followed by attempts to improve the wild varieties of plants and animals that had just been domesticated. The Indian corn found by the first European colonists was a far cry from its ancestor, the grass teosinte. While few successful new domestications have occurred in the past 1000 y, various aquaculture species, such as tilapia, catfish, salmon, and shrimp, are currently on their way to being domesticated. Although the primary goal of domestication (ensuring a more stable, reliable source of animal and essay, plant foods) has not fundamentally changed, the english past 2011, specific goals have become highly specialized over time. For example, we now breed cattle for either beef or dairy production, and people essay, cattle and igcse literature past papers 2011, hogs for leaner meat.

We breed chickens as either egg layers or broilers. Relations Case Studies? In addition, selection for igcse papers, increased efficiency of producing meat, milk, and on steganography, eggs is prominent in today's agriculture, as discussed later in literature papers, this section. Agriculture, built on the domestication of plants and animals, freed people from the all-consuming task of finding food and led to the establishment of permanent settlements. What we know as civilizationcities, governments, written languages, an expanding base of knowledge, improved health and life span, the artswas only possible because of essay, agriculture. Along with domestication of plants and animals, people began the journey of discovery of igcse 2011, methods to extend the useful life of plant and grethe dissertation, animal food items so that nourishment could be sustained throughout the year. With a fixed (nonnomadic) population also came primitive food storage and, with that, improvements in english literature, food safety and quality. In July 2009, an important discovery and conjecture was made about the essay, recognition that food security was of paramount importance. Kuijt and Finlayson (2009) reported that they believe they have discovered several granaries in Jordan dating to english past papers 2011, about 11000 y ago. Lament Essay? This would suggest that populations knew the importance of having a dependable food supply before the domestication of igcse literature past 2011, plants. The authors further suggested that “Evidence for PPNA (Pre-Pottery Neolithic Age) food storage illustrates a major transition in the economic and public relations, social organization of human communities.

The transition from economic systems based on collecting and foraging of wild food resources before this point to cultivation and foraging of mixed wild and managed resources in the PPNA illustrates a major intensification of igcse english literature past 2011, human-plant relationships.” Today, the survival of civilization depends on a handful of domesticated crops. Of the phd thesis, roughly 400000 plant species existing today (Pitman and papers 2011, Jorgensen 2002), fewer than 500 are considered to be domesticated. Selecting for desirable crop traits. The primary force in crop domestication and letter essay, subsequent breeding is selection, both artificial and natural, described below. Charles Darwin, in developing the theory of natural selection, relied heavily on literature papers the knowledge and experiences of plant and of icarus, animal breeders (Darwin 1859). Crops were domesticated from wild ancestors’ gene pools that had been altered by selection imposed by early agriculturalists and by natural selection imposed by biotic and abiotic environmental factors (Harlan and others 1973; Purugganan and Fuller 2010). Selection changes gene pools by english literature papers 2011, increasing the frequency of alleles (genes encoded by a place in the genome and that may vary between individuals and to john, mutant/parent strains) that cause desirable traits and decreasing the frequency of alleles that cause undesirable traits. Modern crop varieties are still shaped by the same forces. The causes of the english 2011, bursts of domestication activity have been the subject of much speculation (Smith 1998), but the changes symptomatic of domestication are well established for many species (Harlan and others 1973; Doebley and others 2006).

Legumes and the large-seeded grasses collectively known as cereals (for example, maize, wheat, rice, and sorghum) contribute most of the calories and plant protein in the human diet. For these and other annual crops such as sunflower and squash, the initial changes during domestication involved ease of harvesting and the ability to compete with weeds. Initially, selection for these traits was most likely not planned but serendipitous and more a matter of chance by random mutations. The most significant problem confronting most agriculturalists, both early and modern, is drosophila, weed competition. 2011? Early agriculturalists scattered seeds on ground that had been prepared, most likely by burning or some other disruption of the soil surface. Those seeds that passed their genes onto of icarus, the next generation (natural selection) were those that best competed with weeds. Selection pressure due to weed competition results in a number of igcse english 2011, changes, including the reduction or elimination of seed dormancy and larger seeds (Harlan and others 1973; Smith 1998). Dormancy is very undesirable in of icarus, annual crops, and igcse english literature past papers, most domesticated species germinate rapidly upon lament essay planting. Selection against dormancy has been so extreme, however, that under certain weather conditions, seeds of modern wheat varieties ( Triticum aestivum ) and english literature papers 2011, barley ( Hordeum vulgare ) sprout while still in the seed head, destroying the value of the grain crop. Larger seeds generally give rise to larger and more vigorous seedlings that compete better with weeds (Purugganan and Fuller 2010). People Essay? In the grasses, selection for larger seed size is associated with increased starch and decreased protein in the endosperm.

For example, the protein content of teosinte ( Zea mays parviglumis )the wild ancestor of maize ( Zea mays mays ), which is referred to as corn in North Americais approximately 30%, while the protein content of modern maize is 11% (Flint-Garcia and igcse english literature past papers 2011, others 2009). While the goal of selection is to alter the targeted trait (appearance and/or performance) and the genetic variation underlying the selected trait will be reduced over time, unselected traits will also often change, and these changes may be negative (for example, reduced endosperm protein in grasses that have been selected for larger seeds). For example, in the United States, the major selection criterion for people observation essay, maize is increased grain yield (Tracy and others 2004), and strong selection pressure for increased grain yield leads to increased starch content and english literature, decreased protein content (Dudley and research, others 2007). Critics focus on english literature past papers 2011 such changes as evidence that the quality of our food supply has been “damaged” by modern plant breeding and agricultural practices. But has it? In United States agriculture, maize is grown for its prodigious ability to convert the sun's energy into chemical energy (carbohydrates), while we have abundant sources of plant and animal protein. In other parts of the world, maize is a staple crop, and on steganography, diets of many people are deficient in protein.

To improve the nutrition of the poor whose staple is maize, plant breeders at the Intl. Igcse English 2011? Center for Maize and Wheat Improvement ( Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo , CIMMYT) developed quality protein maize (QPM) that has an lament improved protein content and amino acid profile (Prasanna and others 2001). English Papers 2011? It is the selection of the breeding objective that determines the outcome. Clearly, different populations and cultures have differing food needs and require different breeding objectives. But, to be sustainable, all cultures need a nutritionally well-balanced diet. Changes in food animal agriculture and lament essay, fisheries. Animal food products are good sources of high-quality protein, minerals (for example, iron), and vitamins, particularly vitamin B12, which is not available in english, plant materials. Livestock production is a dynamic and integral part of the food system today, contributing 40% of the global value of agricultural output, 15% of total food energy, and 25% of drosophila, dietary protein and supporting the livelihoods and food security of almost a billion people (FAO 2009b). Seafood, including products from a growing aquaculture segment, provides at least 15% of the average animal protein consumption to 2.9 billion people, with consumption higher in developed and island countries than in some developing countries (Smith and others 2010).

Except for literature papers, most of sub-Saharan Africa and parts of South Asia, production and consumption of meat, milk, and eggs is affairs relations studies, increasing around the world, driven by population and income growth and urbanization (FAO 2009b; Steinfeld and others 2010). Igcse Papers 2011? The rapidly increasing demand for meat and dairy products has led during the past 50 y to an approximately 1.5-fold increase in the global numbers of essay current research, cattle, sheep, and goats; 2.5-fold increase in pigs; and 4.5-fold increase in chickens (Godfray and others 2010). The nutritional impact of animal products varies tremendously around the world (FAO 2009b; Steinfeld and others 2010). The structure of the livestock sector is igcse literature, complex, differs by location and species, and is being transformed by globalization of affairs relations, supply chains for feed, genetic stock, and other technologies (FAO 2009b). The current livestock sector has shifted from pasture-based ruminant species (cattle, sheep, goats, and others having a multichamber stomach, one of which is the rumen) to feed-dependent monogastric species (for example, poultry) and is marked by intensification and increasing globalization (Steinfeld and others 2010). A substantial proportion of livestock, however, is grass-fed (Godfray and others 2010) and small-holder farmers and herders feed 1 billion people living on less than $1 a day (Herrero and others 2010). The rates of conversion of english literature past 2011, grains to meat, milk, and eggs from food animals have improved significantly in developed and developing countries (CAST 1999).

Technological improvements have taken place most rapidly and effectively in essay current research, poultry production, with broiler growth rates nearly doubled and feed conversion ratios halved since the english literature past, early 1960s. In addition to these productivity gains, bird health and adams, product quality and safety have improved through applications of breeding, feeding, disease control, housing, and processing technologies (FAO 2009b). In addition, transgenic technology is literature papers 2011, used to essay, produce fish with faster, more efficient growth rates. Meeting the english past papers, needs of a growing population. As a result of improved public health measures and of icarus, modern medicine, the population has mushroomed from an estimated 1 to english literature past 2011, 10 million in 10000 BC to an estimated 600 to 900 million in AD 1750 and an estimated 6.8 billion today. Grethe? Thomas Malthus (1803) predicted that population growth would inevitably outpace resource production, and therefore that misery (hunger and starvation) would endure. Undoubtedly, application of science and technology in agriculture and igcse english, food and people essay, beverage manufacturing has negated these predictions and fed population growth (Figure 1).

From Foraging and igcse english literature papers, Farming to lament essay, Food Science and Engineering. Adapted from Henry (1997) Nutrition Society 1997. Reprinted with the permission of Cambridge University Press. The application of science to agriculture has dramatically increased productivity, but until the Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, productivity was not keeping pace with population growth. Large areas of the world, including the 2 most populous nations, China and India, were experiencing severe food shortages and anticipating worse. Literature? The improved plant breeding techniques of the Green Revolution have dramatically improved that situation.

However, the Green Revolution's remarkable advances have been acquired at substantial cost. The vastly improved varieties resulting from people essay, improved plant-breeding techniques require much larger inputs of fertilizer and water. Igcse English Literature Past? Poor farmers often cannot afford the fertilizer, and adequate water supplies are becoming an increasing problem in phd thesis on steganography, many areas. Thus, the Green Revolution, for all its enormous benefits, has primarily helped larger farmers much more than smaller, poorer ones. In addition, pesticide applications in the developing world are too often inappropriate or excessivein some cases because the farmer is unable to read the labeland there is no structure (for example, a regulatory agency such as the igcse literature papers 2011, Environmental Protection Agency) to regulate their use. Problems are not, however, confined to the developing world. Nutrient run off in the United States and other countries leads to harald grethe, algal blooms in lakes and estuaries and to “dead zones” completely lacking in oxygen in lakes and oceans. Soil erosion by igcse english, wind and water continues to harald, be a problem in many producing areas. Soil quality thus suffers. The world's known resources of high-grade phosphate ore are limited, and the essential plant nutrient phosphorus will consequently become more expensive (Vaccari 2009). These problems are certainly capable of solution, through a number of practices.

Beneficial options include “no-till” agriculture (which leaves the root systems of previous crops undisturbed, thereby retaining organic matter and greatly discouraging erosion), integrated pest management, IPM (which focuses pesticide use where needed, substantially decreasing the amount used), precision agriculture (which site-specifically targets production inputs such as seed, fertilizer, and pesticides where and when needed), drip irrigation (controlled trickling of water), and use of literature 2011, new technology for recovering nitrogen and phosphorus from processing wastewater for use as fertilizer (Bongiovanni and Lowenberg-Deboer 2004; Frog Capital 2009; Gebbers and Adamchuk 2010). Measures such as those just discussed are useful primarily in the economically more developed areas. Developing countries require other steps adapted to their local areas and focused particularly on improvements for harald grethe, the many millions of small, poor farmers. Improved plant varieties, produced both by conventional breeding and through biotechnology are necessary, as are improved varieties of igcse past papers 2011, fish and livestock. There is essay drosophila current, little doubt that improvements in papers 2011, plant breeding, both conventional and transgenic, can significantly improve productivity. Technological improvements, such as automated plant monitoring via robotics, are “helping plant breeders trim years off the process of developing crop varieties tailored to local conditions” (Pennisi 2010). The list of harald, such needs is english papers 2011, far too long to explore here, but it also must include public health measures. A major problem yet to be addressed is the subsidization of agricultural products in developed nations. Public Government Relations Case? Products from small, unsubsidized farmers in developing nations cannot compete in the world market with subsidized products from advanced nations.

This problem was the english papers 2011, cause of a recent breakdown in World Trade Organization talks. Some see organic agriculture as an answer to these problems. Organic farming has some clear merits, particularly those practices, such as crop rotation and the use of green or natural biocontrol agents and animal manure, which have been used by adams, farmers for millennia (King 1949). The use of degraded plant and igcse english papers 2011, animal residues increases the friability (tendency to crumble, as opposed to caking) and water-holding capacity of soil, and to john adams, nutrients from decaying plants and animal manure are more slowly available than those from most commercial fertilizers. English Literature? Both of these factorsfriability and slow nutrient availabilitydiminish nutrient runoff. While organic agriculture continues to grow in response to consumer preferences in the developed world, there are limitations to current research, widespread use of organic practices. Organic agriculture requires substantially more land and labor than conventional practices to igcse literature 2011, produce food, and the resulting yields are not great enough and too expensive to address the needs of the growing population. The supply of composted animal manure is lament, limited and relatively expensive compared to commercial fertilizers.

Organic agriculture excludes the use of synthetic pesticides, and igcse past 2011, the few “natural” ones that are permitted are seldom used (Lotter 2003). Herbicides are not permitted in organic agriculture, even though some, such as glyphosate, are rapidly degraded in the soil. These exclusions require more manual labor for weed and research, pest control. All of these factors result in higher costs and higher prices for organic foods. Reports on productivity vary widely, but some credible sources place organic food production as low as 50% of that of conventional agriculture (Bichel Committee 1999). Yield differences may be attributable to a number of factors such as agro-ecological zone (for example, temperate and irrigated compared with humid and literature past papers, perhumid), crop type, high-input compared with low-input level of comparable conventional crop, and harald grethe dissertation, management experience (Zundel and Kilcher 2007). In addition, current organic methods exclude the igcse english, use of the products of modern biotechnologyrecombinant DNA technologyessential to future increases in agricultural productivity. Nevertheless, the more useful practices of organic agriculture must be part of the agriculture of the harald, future.

Although poverty and malnutrition exist in all countries, by far the most severe problems in achieving availability, safety, and igcse english papers 2011, nutritive value of food and beverages occur in the developing world (IFPRI 2009). Water shortages and contaminated water, poor soil, destruction of essay, forest for fuel, use of animal manure for fuel, the spread of papers, plant and letter to john essay, animal diseases, and the complete lack of a sound food safety infrastructure are among the most vexing problems. Continued food scarcity invites chaos, disease, and terrorism (Brown 2009). The gap between developing and developed nations is not only in economics but also in science, governance, and public information. Thus, to address these issues, the food system must be considered in its totality. Eighty percent of agricultural land is used for grain fed to meat animals and papers 2011, yields only 15% of our calorie intake. Many have suggested that world food shortages could be greatly alleviated by consuming less meat and public affairs government relations studies, using the grain supplies now consumed by animals more directly. Reduction in igcse english literature papers 2011, meat intake, particularly red meats, would confer some health benefits, but the government relations studies, potential effects on world food supplies are less clear and quite possibly much less than many presume. If developed nations consume much less meat, the price of meat will fall and poorer nations will consume more.

If more grain is consumed, grain prices will rise, to the detriment of populations that already rely heavily on igcse english past papers grain. The global food system is extremely complex, and any single change causes many others, often in unexpected ways (Stokstad 2010). Clearly, the solution to the challenge of meeting the food demands of our future world population lies in these principal thrusts: •  Increased agricultural productivity everywhere, but particularly among poor farmers, of whom there are hundreds of millions. •  Increased economic development and education, both for their own merits and because they will promote infrastructure gains in transportation and water management. Harald Grethe Dissertation? •  Much-increased efforts in environmental and water conservation and past 2011, improvement. •  Continued improvements in observation, food and beverage processing and packaging to english literature 2011, deliver safe, nutritious, and affordable food. •  Reduction of to john, postharvest losses, particularly in developing countries. We must achieve all of these goals. To maintain, as some do, that we cannot have both vastly increased productivity and good environmental practices is a “false choice” (Gates 2009). Meeting these goals will require the literature papers, effective use of scienceboth the science now within reach and that still to be developed. Postharvest losses occur between harvest and consumption as a result of spoilage of drosophila, raw agricultural commodities, primarily during storage and igcse past papers 2011, transportation, before they can be stabilized for longer-term storage. Letter To John Essay? The granaries mentioned earlier were the first crude efforts to attack this problem, but it still persists. Postharvest losses due to rodents, insects, and microbial spoilage in some areas amount to 30% or more of the harvested crop. This results in wasted seed, water, fertilizer, and labor.

Postharvest losses must be attacked with locally appropriate improvements in english past papers 2011, available technology (Normile 2010). It is essay, not enough merely to increase and english literature past, conserve the supply of raw food; it must be conserved against further loss by processing and be packaged, distributed to where it is needed, and guaranteed in its safety, nutritional value, and cultural relevance. That is the people observation, role of science and technology and engineering applied to the processing of foods and beverages. A widely understood and accepted definition of food processing does not exist, and english past, perceptions of “processed foods” vary widely. From the broadest perspective, food processing may be considered to include any deliberate change in a food occurring between the point of origin and availability for consumption. The change could be as simple as rinsing and packaging by a food manufacturer to ensure that the food is not damaged before consumer accessibility, or as complex as formulating the product with specific additives for controlling microorganisms, maintaining desired quality attributes, or providing a specific health benefit, followed by packaging that may itself play a role in microbial control or quality preservation.

Some people process their own foods in the home, by canning produce from a garden, microwave cooking, or dehydrating food, for grethe dissertation, example. Following recipes to bake cakes, cookies, and casseroles or to make chili are examples of formulating foods in the home (Shewfelt 2009). In general, food processing is applied for one or more of the following reasons: preservation, extending the harvest in a safe and stable form; safety; quality; availability; convenience; innovation; health and wellness; and sustainability. Although the past 2011, private sector carries out drosophila current research, these processes and delivers the final product to the consumer, public investment in generating the science and engineering base necessary to continue the creativity and ultimate application of new technologies is clearly warranted. Many writings from antiquity refer to food and its preservation and preparation. Major advances in food preservation accelerated with the development of canning, which proceeded from the igcse english literature, investigations of Nicolas Appert in France and letter to john adams essay, the subsequent activities of igcse english past papers, Peter Durand in England in the early 19th century. Appert used corked glass bottles to preserve food, and Durand introduced the concept of metal cans. Phd Thesis? This led to increased emphasis from scientists on igcse papers the quantity and quality of food, although the reason for canning's effectiveness for food preservation was not discovered until nearly 50 y later. Louis Pasteur reported to the French Academy of Sciences in 1864 on people observation essay the lethal effect of heat on microorganisms. W. Russel of the Univ. of literature, Wisconsin and Samuel Cate Prescott and William Lyman Underwood of the Massachusetts Inst. of Technology described in 1895 to 1896 the need for time and temperature control (Labuza and Sloan 1981). No period of time has seen such rapid advances in food and beverage processing as the 20th century (Welch and Mitchell 2000).

Modern food science and technology has extended, expanded, and refined these traditional methods and relations studies, added new ones. Simple cooking, though still the most common process, evolved into canning. Dehydration, once restricted to less sanitary sun drying, now is usually a highly mechanized and sanitized process. Refrigeration has evolved from cool storage to sophisticated refrigerators and literature 2011, freezers, and the industrial techniques of blast freezing and individual quick freezing (IQF) are less detrimental to government, nutritional quality and sensory quality (for example, taste, texture). All of these developments contributed to increased nutritional quality, safety, variety, acceptability, and availability of foods and beverages. Many of these techniques are now combined into more effective preservation technologies through the concept of “hurdle technology,” combining techniques to create conditions that bacteria cannot overcome, such as combining drying with chemical preservatives and packaging, or mild heat treatment followed by packaging and refrigerated storage (Leistner and english past, Gould 2002). Still another notable evolution is the long history of the use of food additivessubstances added in small quantities to produce a desired effect.

Of the harald dissertation, 32 “technical effects” (functional purposes) listed by the Food and Drug Administration in the  Code of Federal Regulations , 24 can be recognized in the few cookbooks and recipe compilations that have survived from more than 150 y ago. Among the igcse english literature past papers 2011, additives that were once used to produce these technical effects (Hall 1978) are. •  Pearl ash (from wood ashes) and on steganography, vinegar as leavening agents. •  Sodium silicate (water glass) for dipping eggs to preserve them. •  Lye for hulling corn. Igcse English Literature Past? •  Sulfur dioxide from burning sulfur as a fumigant and preservative. •  Unlined copper utensils for making pickles greener. •  Saltpeter and roach alum as curing and pickling agents. •  Grass, marigold flowers, and harald grethe, indigo stone (copper sulfate) as sources of green, yellow, and blue colors. Before the days of widespread industrial production of food and igcse past papers, before the advent of to john, modern chemistry and toxicology, these and many other crude additives were used confidently within the family without any knowledge of the risks they presented. In the english papers, 20th century, the harald, development of the science of toxicology permitted the careful evaluation of the safety of substances added to food. The advent of modern chemistry permitted the igcse papers, detection of intentional adulteration of foods by purveyors using deceitful practices, and led to the passage and enforcement of dissertation, modern food laws. Frederick Accum's “Treatise on the Adulteration of Food,” published in 1820, marked the beginning of this effort. In the United States, the english literature past papers, Pure Food and Drugs Act of 1906 prohibited adulteration and misbranding of food, issues that continued to be addressed in the United States via federal statutes.

Prior to 1958, the burden of proving that a substance posed an public affairs government relations case unacceptable risk rested with the igcse papers, government. In that year, the Food Additives Amendment to the 1938 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act changed that by advancing the concept of “adulteration” and imposing on food manufacturers the task of proving prior to lament essay, marketing that an additive is safe under the conditions of its intended use. The change in the use of food additives in past 2011, the past 100 y has been dramatic. Essay Drosophila Research? We have moved from the use of crude, unidentified, often hazardous substances to purified, publicly identified food ingredients that are well evaluated for igcse, safety. Now high standards and margins of safety are applied to food additives (ACS 1968; NAS 1973; Hall 1977). Today, because of modern means of detection, intentional food adulteration in industrialized countries is considered uncommon, occurring more often in foods imported from countries without effective food safety infrastructure.

Except for grethe dissertation, rare cases of individual sensitivity, human harm from english literature past papers, approved food additives in the United States is virtually unknown. Advances in food science and public government studies, technology. Drying, canning, chemical preservation, refrigeration (including chilling and freezing), and igcse english, nutrient conservation and essay current, fortification were the significant advances of the igcse english literature 2011, 19th and 20th centuries and permitted population growth in more developed countries. Such population growth could only occur if there was sufficient food. The industrial revolution could not have occurred without a food delivery system that allowed people to harald dissertation, leave the farms, migrate to the cities, and igcse past 2011, engage in drosophila current research, useful production of papers 2011, goods and services for of icarus essay, society. Among the important developments during the early part of the past, 20th century were the discovery of to john adams, vitamins and the realization of the importance of other micronutrients such as iodine, iron, and calcium. Those with memories of that earlier period recall the bowed legs associated with rickets (from vitamin D deficiency) and the swollen thyroids related to goiter (from iodine deficiency). With the introduction of the draft just before World War II, the army discovered widespread malnutrition among young American males. This led to english past papers 2011, the foundation of the Food and essay current research, Nutrition Board of the igcse literature past, Inst. of Medicine of the Natl. Academies and drosophila current research, also the development in igcse english 2011, 1941 of the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for essential nutrients.

The difficulty of achieving these RDAs from drosophila current, available foods, especially among the poor, led manufacturers to fortify common foods with vitamins and other micronutrients, beginning with iodized salt in 1924. Today, fortified foods, defined by federal Standards of Identity, include such staples as pasta, milk, butter, salt, and flour. Technological innovations in food preservation were dependent on advances in the sciences, especially chemistry and microbiology. How these sciences and igcse english papers, technologies are applied within each society depends on the economic, biological, cultural, and political contexts for each society. For example, vegetarian groups require certain technologies, but not others; rice-eating societies may reject, sometimes strongly, foods based on other grains; and slaughtering procedures vary with religious backgrounds. Advances in agriculture and food science and technology have led to to john adams, reduction in igcse past, nutrient deficiency-related diseases; a generally safe food supply with consistent high quality available independent of seasons; food choices that do not require preparation time; a wide range of delicious foods; reduced food waste; lower household food costs than ever before; convenience foods requiring much less preparation time than before, a benefit for adams, working families; and efficient global food distribution that can be exploited in times of natural and man-made disasters. Food is central to human health, not only in igcse past 2011, terms of quantity, but also quality as well. The past few decades have seen alarming rates of increase in harald grethe dissertation, chronic diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer, as well as autoimmune diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease and english literature, autism. A growing body of epidemiological, clinical, and basic research shows that food and diet are important factors involved in the etiology of these and other chronic diseases, and that dietary patterns have a profound effect on the risk for chronic diseases. Anand and others (2008), for example, describe the substantial role of of icarus, environment lifestyle risk factors (such as sun exposure, diet, obesity, and physical inactivity) for cancer and provide evidence that cancer could be preventable for igcse literature, some people but that this would require major lifestyle changes.

Hence, whether it is food safety and letter to john adams essay, security, or nutrient deficiency and disease prevention, food is intricately connected to human health and well-being. Dietary guidelines are produced to provide advice on good dietary habits that will promote health and reduce risk for major chronic diseases. The 2005  Dietary Guidelines for Americans  includes recommendations to increase consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low-fat milk, and to english papers 2011, limit consumption of  trans  fats, saturated fats, cholesterol, and sodium. Many food companies have responded to these recommendations. For example, more bread and cereal products are now available that are made from dissertation, whole grains and have higher fiber contents. The introduction of baby carrots doubled intake of carrots. Introducing milk packaging that appeals to teens has increased milk consumption in literature past, that population group. Product reformulation has greatly reduced the  trans  fat content of many foods, and several companies have made commitments to reduce the sodium content of food products. Convenient and innovative toddler foods made from a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and dairy are now available.

To help control portion size, limited-calorie packaging has entered the market for a variety of categories. Overweight and obesity have become the dominant health problem in the United States and many developed countries. In children, the prevalence has almost tripled in the past 3 decades (Ogden and others 2000). This is of particular concern because overweight children have a high likelihood of becoming overweight adults, with all the associated diseases such as metabolic syndrome and diabetes. Recent research suggests that childhood obesity is determined by essay drosophila research, age 2 (Harrington and others 2010), which supports the earlier set-point theory that body weight is igcse papers, regulated at to john essay, a predetermined or preferred level by a feedback-control mechanism (Harris 1990).

The obesity issue is a scientifically complex issue of behavior and may be economically driven; some of the lowest priced foods are the more calorie-dense and palatable products (Drewnowski 2004; MacAulay and english past papers 2011, Newsome 2004). Diabetes mellitus is expected to lament, skyrocket to epidemic proportions in the next quarter-century (Bonow and Gheorghiade 2004). Papers 2011? Lifestyle interventions are the 1st step in the management of diabetes and phd thesis on steganography, metabolic syndrome (Stone 2008). Even in the midst of an abundance of energy from food, however, many people do not meet their nutrient requirements, sometimes because of the igcse past, types of public relations case, foods available to papers 2011, them, other times because of the kinds of foods they select. The report of the 2010 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (DGAC 2010) recommended focus on achieving energy balance through the current nutrition and physical activity guidelines.

Food Processing: A Critical Element. As indicated above, food processing has evolved from merely a need to preserve foods from the time and location of harvest or assembly until the product reaches the consumer, to possibly complex activities that may include sourcing raw materials and observation essay, ingredients from english past, different parts of the world that can improve nutritional and other desirable qualities for better overall health and wellness of consumers. Food processing frequently serves multiple objectives. For example, freezing or cooking and freezing both preserve and affairs government case studies, provide convenience. Heating or fermentation of soy is necessary both to achieve edibility and to remove the hemagglutinens that would be mildly toxic. Processing operations are conducted under controlled conditions to ensure that the literature past, process is completed in the most effective and dissertation, efficient manner. The resulting products include ingredients delivered to past 2011, food manufacturers to letter, be used in producing foods for consumers, as well as ingredients (for example, flour) for consumers to use in food preparation.

The development and implementation of new technologies enhances food quality and safety. New and innovative products, some with unique product attributes, have been developed through the use of new processing technologies. The formulation, processing, and igcse english literature past, packaging of a food or beverage is accomplished for several clearly definable purposes, with numerous benefits to the consumer and society: •  Preservation. This is the oldest and perhaps still the most common purpose, and grethe dissertation, the one most familiar to consumers. English Past Papers? The purpose of preservation is to extend the shelf life of a food or beverage. •  Safety. The processing of public relations case, food is designed to remove health hazards associated with microbial pathogens.

Processing operations dealing with raw food materials or ingredients carrying pathogens have significant controls and regulations to detect and inactivate food-borne microorganisms that can cause illness. Igcse English Literature Papers 2011? Pasteurization of milk is just one of many examples of processes that eliminate a health hazard for the consumer and extend the life of the product. Managing food safety, however, goes beyond microbiological risks. Phd Thesis On Steganography? Good agricultural and manufacturing practices and other principles address chemical and physical hazards as well. In addition, plant breeding has contributed to reduction of some of the toxicants that occur naturally in foods in small amounts (ACS 1968; Hall 1977) and have been the source of igcse papers, common and sometimes widespread human illness and occasionally death. Processing is, however, still necessary in some instances. For example, manioc must be crushed and soakedor crushed, heated, and treated with acidto remove hydrogen cyanide from cyanogenic glycosides before the resulting starch (tapioca) is safe to consume. •  Quality.

Processes to ensure the delivery of foods and beverages of the government relations case studies, highest quality to the consumer continue to evolve. Quality attributes include taste, aroma, texture, color, and nutrient content. In most cases, these attributes begin to decline as soon as a raw food material or ingredient is harvested or collected. The goal of the processes is to ensure that the decline in quality attributes is literature, minimized. For example, blanching and freezing vegetables immediately after harvesting ensures that the nutrients remain at essay, their peak level. In some cases, the quality attributes are enhanced by processing. For example, processing of igcse, soybeans greatly improves their flavor.

•  Availability. Food processing helps to ensure that the consumer has access to a wide variety of foods and food ingredients at any time, including those that help to improve the retention of to john essay, quality attributes for the period of time required for delivery of the product to the consumer. For example, controlling the composition of the atmosphere surrounding apples and other fruits leads to extended freshness. •  Sustainability. Food processing ensures that the resources required to produce raw food materials and ingredients for food manufacturing are used most efficiently. Responding to igcse english literature papers 2011, the goals of sustainability requires the maximum utilization of all raw materials produced and letter to john adams essay, integration of activities throughout all the production-to-consumption stages. To maximize the conversion of raw materials into consumer products, efforts begin at the production stage, with activities to reduce postharvest losses and increase use of by-products. Efforts continue, through food manufacturing and beyond, to ensure that energy, water, and other resources are used most efficiently and environmental impacts are minimized.

Refrigeration of english literature 2011, fresh produce is an example of an action that reduces loss and increases the edible life of the product. •  Convenience. Affairs Government Relations Case? Many processed foods and beverages are developed to allow them to past, be consumed after limited amounts of preparation. Harald Grethe Dissertation? For example, a frozen or refrigerated entree is delivered to the consumer in a form ready for microwave heating. Literature Past Papers 2011? Snack foods are ready to eat when delivered to lament of icarus essay, the consumer. •  Health and Wellness. At a fundamental level, food is viewed as a source of nutrition to meet at least the minimum daily requirements for survival, but there is an ever-greater focus on the desire for english past papers, health optimization from food. Processing can enhance the nutritional value of foods in a number of ways.

For example, refiningseparation of the antinutritional componentsis the essay, best means of improving the nutritional quality of many foodstuffs of vegetable origin, and processing of fresh tomatoes (for example, into catsup) improves the bioavailability of the carotenoid lycopene. Some products are specifically designed to english literature past 2011, enhance individual health and wellnessthe focus of many current trendsrequiring specific unique ingredients and an array of processes to essay, ensure desired product attributes. Many products are fortified or enriched with vitamins and minerals (for example, orange juice fortified with calcium for bone health) and other nutrients (for example, margarine enriched with plant stanols and literature, sterols for heart health) in response to defined nutritional needs of observation, consumers. The success of these productsoften referred to igcse english literature past, as “functional foods”requires that flavor and texture also meet consumer expectations. Typical technologies, processes, and operations. The mechanical operations, processes, and technologies typically used to essay, achieve these benefits in preparing and using raw materials in manufacturing foods and beverages (Potter and Hotchkiss 1995) are briefly described below: •  Mechanical Operations. There are many mechanical operations used throughout the food system, including simple conveying of raw materials from one location to another, as well as more intense operations to literature papers 2011, change the physical structure of the material.

All or most of these operations are larger scale versions of operations that have been used to to john adams, prepare foods for centuries. The cracking and grinding of cereal grains to igcse english literature past, manufacture the flour used in bakery products is a very visible example. Most often these operations are designed to produce one or more of the ingredients to be used in consumer food products. The extraction of oil from soybeans and other oilseeds requires a mechanical operation before efficient separation of the harald, oil can be accomplished. In most cases, these operations are a component of series of steps needed to ensure the most efficient use of the raw material, often including the manufacturing of an array of by-products for english past 2011, consumers to utilize. Another typical mechanical operation is dry mixing, involving the blending of various ingredients to ensure homogeneous and uniform distribution of the various ingredients before a final stage of manufacturing. •  Heating . Lament Of Icarus Essay? The use of thermal energy to increase the igcse english literature past, temperature of a raw food or ingredient is the most recognized and widely used approach to preservation of food. By increasing the temperature to appropriate levels and holding for an appropriate time that is dependent on both the nature of the food and the objective of the process, pathogenic or spoilage microorganisms are significantly decreased in number or eliminated. Thermal processes applied to harald grethe, foods in food manufacturing are based on the same principles as those governing traditional cooking of foods during preparation. The impact of papers, heatingthermal processingon components of the food is the same as that during cooking and often results in dissertation, the enhancement of flavors and texture, as well as some modest losses of english literature past, heat-sensitive nutrients. Many shelf-stable foods are available to consumers as a result of thermal processing.

Less-intense thermal processes, such as pasteurization, also ensure that dairy products and fruit juices are safe. Heating food to extend its shelf life probably dates back to letter adams, antiquity, when people observed that food that had been cooked kept longer without spoiling. However, it was not until Appert and others investigated heating foods in containers that it was discovered that immediate recontamination of heated food from the environment did not occur. Since those meager beginnings, advances in mathematics, chemistry, biology, and engineering, coupled with their application to food science and technology, have resulted in development of equipment and procedures to optimize the application of heat to igcse english literature past 2011, foods for on steganography, the purpose of extending their shelf life and enhancing their edibility (texture, flavor, and visual appearance). There are basically 3 types of igcse papers, heat processes that are applied to food, other than cooking: blanching, pasteurization, and canning. The latter 2 are tightly regulated by federaland in some cases, stateagencies to ensure proper application of the technology and prevention of grethe, food-borne illness.

Blanching  is a mild heat treatment (usually accomplished at english literature, temperatures below 212F for less than 2 to 3 min) applied to harald grethe dissertation, foods that are to be subsequently canned, frozen, or dried. The purpose is to eliminate or reduce activity of enzymes in the foods that catalyze changes in igcse past, flavor, texture, or color. Other benefits include removal of air from the food tissue to reduce oxidation, softening of the plant tissue to facilitate packing into packages, and inactivation of antinutritional properties (such as trypsin inhibitor in soybeans, a naturally occurring chemical that reduces dietary protein breakdown in the human gastrointestinal tract). The process is usually carried out in hot water or steam, although there are processes based on hot air or microwave heating. Since the people essay, process is relatively mild, there is relatively little effect on nutrients, although when hot water is used as the heating medium some nutrients, especially water-soluble nutrients, are leached into the water. “ Pasteurization ” is named after Pasteur, who demonstrated that wine spoiled because of the presence of english literature, microorganisms and that a mild heat treatment could be used to inactivate the microorganisms and to john adams essay, thereby extend the shelf life. Pasteurization is most well known for its application to milk, which is strictly regulated through the U.S. Public Health Service/FDA's Pasteurized Milk Ordinance. Pasteurization is most generally applied to liquids, although it is also applied to semisolid and solid foods. As applied to liquids, the igcse english past papers 2011, temperature is elevated to 140 to 212F for a short period of time (usually less than 1 min) to inactivate microorganisms that can cause illness (pathogens).

As originally applied, the liquid was heated after it was put into the container; but by applying advances in food engineering, such as the understanding of public affairs government case, flow dynamics and english literature past papers, heat transfer to flowing liquids, continuous processes were developed using heat exchangers, machines used to transfer heat from a hot fluid to a colder one. Modern processes are almost exclusively continuous processes, with the public affairs relations, pasteurized liquid being deposited into sterile packages. Igcse 2011? Most pasteurized foods are subsequently kept in refrigerated storage to to john adams, extend the shelf life because not all spoilage organisms present have been inactivated. “ Canning ” is igcse english literature 2011, primarily used to inactivate microorganisms that cause food-borne disease such as botulism, but it also inactivates microorganisms that cause food spoilage. This thermal process is commonly accomplished by holding the relations studies, product at literature papers, temperatures well above 230F for several minutes. Canned food is not absolutely sterile (devoid of all viable microorganisms) but rather is commercially sterile (devoid of affairs relations case, all viable microorganisms that could grow under normal storage conditions). There are 2 major methods: heating the food after it has been sealed in literature, a container (referred to as  canning ) and sterilizing the food, then depositing it in affairs relations studies, a sterile container within a sterile environment and sealing the container (referred to as  aseptic processing ). These processes can also be optimized for english past papers 2011, retention of nutrients and letter to john adams essay, quality factors such as taste, flavor, and color. The success of this method of preserving foods in eliminating food-related deficiency diseases cannot be understated, with canned fruits and vegetables being a source of vitamin C independent of seasons, for example. •  Refrigeration and Freezing. The use of past 2011, low temperatures to extend the shelf life of food and drosophila current research, beverage products has a long history. The use of ice to reduce the temperature of igcse past 2011, foods and prevent spoilage has been recognized for centuries.

Refrigerators are now found in almost every home in industrialized countries. Although the reduction of temperature does not eliminate microbial populations, it reduces the rate of microbial growth enough to prevent product spoilage and observation essay, extend the literature, shelf life of most food products. To John Essay? Most fruits and igcse english papers 2011, vegetables are refrigerated to extend their freshness. In addition, refrigeration also reduces the reaction rates of enzymes that cause deterioration of most quality attributes of a food or beverage, making high-quality products available to the consumer for extended periods of time (Heldman and Hartel 1997). Some foods and beverages receive a mild heat treatment to inactivate enzymes and eliminate microorganisms that can cause disease but still require refrigeration to control the growth of surviving microorganisms that can cause spoilage. Pasteurized milk is probably the best example, but many other foods and beverages are also pasteurized and then refrigerated.

In general, holding a food or beverage at refrigeration or freezing temperature has no negative impact on the quality attributes of the food but extends consumable product life. “ Freezing ” is a more intense use of refrigeration to reduce the temperature of a product to levels below the freezing temperature of water in the product. Lower temperatures cause the liquid water to change phase to ice. Harald Dissertation? At these reduced temperatures (−0.4 to igcse papers 2011, −14F), the deterioration rates for product quality attributes are reduced to below those at refrigeration temperature, and harald, microbial growth is reduced to negligible levels. It is not unusual for frozen fruits, vegetables, and some meat products to maintain high quality for as much as 1 y while frozen. Many favorite desserts, such as ice cream, have been created by the freezing process.

Most nutrients are not affected by english literature past 2011, freezing; however, it is difficult to freeze a food product without impact on the some of its more evident quality attributes. Current? The formation of igcse past papers 2011, ice crystals within the structure of a plant or animal food results in a series of reactions with potential impact on texture and flavor. Thus, careful control of the time to freeze the product and the temperature of the frozen product during distribution and phd thesis on steganography, storage is important to minimize such reactions and ensure the best possible quality attributes over time (Erickson and Hung 1997). The size of ice crystals created during the freezing process can be controlled, but this is not possible with all products or freezing facilities. For example, small pieces of igcse english literature 2011, fruits or vegetables can be frozen very rapidly, and the product structure is preserved with uniform distribution of small ice crystals. In contrast, a large portion of beef or any product in a large package will require a longer time to freeze and will result in a less-uniform distribution of larger ice crystals. The extent of the impact on product quality depends on an array of factors occurring after freezing, including control of temperature during storage and distribution and letter to john adams essay, final preparation of the food. For many foods, the quality attributes of refrigerated and frozen foods compare favorably to those of the igcse 2011, fresh counterparts (Mallet 1993). •  Dehydration. Drying is intended to halt or slow the letter to john, growth of microorganisms and rate of chemical reactions.

The removal of water provides food processors excellent opportunities to igcse, reduce volume and weight, extend shelf life, and convert liquids to powdery products, such as instant coffee or a vegetable soup base mix. Public Studies? This process is one of the oldest techniques used to igcse, preserve foods, one of the most utilized, and the most energy intensive (von Loesecke 1943; Saravacos 1965; King 1968; Thijssen 1979). Water removal is usually performed via evaporation, vaporization, or sublimation (drying while frozen) by means of a simultaneous heat, mass, and momentum transfer mechanism (Whitaker 1977). This transfer occurs within the food itself and between the food and the drying medium, resulting in the reduction of moisture, a key variable in all drying operations. In addition to water removal, chemical reactions occur, such as Maillard browning (nonenzymatic browning) of amino acids/reducing sugars such as glucose, caramelization of sugar, denaturation/degradation of cross-linking proteins, and pyrolysis (decomposition or transformation of a compound caused by heat) of the various organic constituents. In addition, loss of volatile compounds, gelatinization of starches, and modification of food material structure change the characteristics of the original product significantly (Viollaz and Alzamora 2005). Many types of dryers, dehydration methods, and associated equipment are applied to phd thesis, a very wide range of foods.

Sun drying on trays, mats, or platforms is the traditional method and is still used today. Modern equipment includes cabinet, bed, conveyor, fluidized bed, drum, vacuum, and spray dryers. Freeze drying (lyophilization), osmotic dehydration, microwave, and innovative light-driven refractance-window dryers are also in use. With continuous technological advances in different fields, drying is english past, constantly evolving to phd thesis on steganography, offer better quality and novel products. Mathematical modeling and process simulation have significantly contributed to the understanding of the intricacies of this very complex process and igcse english papers, the design of new dryers and drying systems. Letter To John Adams Essay? One trend is to combine 2 or more dehydration techniquesor a dehydration method with other processing approachesfor treatments that optimize cost, food quality, and safety. Examples of these combinations include microwavevacuum drying, ultrasound-assisted air drying, and encapsulation and flavor impregnation to add value. •  Acidification. Raw foods and beverages vary significantly in igcse english literature 2011, levels of people, acid they contain. Foods with lower levels of igcse english 2011, acid are more susceptible to affairs, microbial growth and are thus more perishable. The intentional adjustment in the level of acid in a food has been a preservation method for centuries, in making pickles, for example.

This approach to preservation is based on igcse literature past papers the inability of many spoilage microorganisms and phd thesis on steganography, pathogens to grow at high levels of acid. Increasing the english past 2011, acidity prevents growth of many microorganisms and extends the shelf life of the product, while maintaining many of its attributes. Letter? This preservation method can be accomplished by addition of acid to adjust the overall acidity level of the product, or biologically through fermentation. Since acid alone may not be sufficient to fully protect the product, adjustments in acidity are frequently used in combination with other techniques such as heat, additives, or refrigeration to accomplish preservation and safety. •  Fermentation. The use of microorganisms to change a perishable food into a less-perishable product is another very old way of preservation that has been used around the world by societies without access to refrigeration to past papers, extend the edible life of a fresh food.

Many of these products, such as blue cheese, salami, sauerkraut, and yogurt, have become so popular that societies with ready access to refrigeration continue to enjoy fermented foods but still frequently use refrigeration to maintain safety and extend shelf life of these modern versions. Although some microorganisms lead to food spoilage and others cause food poisoning, specific microorganisms that can induce desirable changes in foods are used to overpower those that can lead to unappealing or unsafe foods. Letter Adams? Fermentation microorganisms primarily work to change the chemical makeup of a product, making it less likely that undesirable microorganisms will reproduce and compromise product safety or quality. Beneficial microorganisms synthesize natural preservatives, such as lactic acid and other acids (increasing the acidity of the igcse past papers 2011, food), carbon dioxide (lowering the oxygen content), and ethanol (discouraging growth of undesirable microorganisms). Yeasts produce carbon dioxide to expand the structure, such as dough for bread baking.

They are also responsible for essay drosophila research, the production of ethanol to produce beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages. Fermented dairy products include yogurt and a host of ripened cheeses. English Literature Past Papers? Fermented cucumbers are called pickles in people, Western countries, but pickling is another word for fermenting and is used to produce pickled eggs, pig's feet, and english literature papers, even snakes in certain countries. Many countries and cultures have their own favorite types of fermented products, such as injera from Ethiopia, kimchi (fermented cabbage) from Korea, salami and lament, other fermented sausages from Italy and Germany, and english literature past papers, sauerkraut from dissertation, northern Europe. Harvested cacao beans are fermented before cleaning and roasting, making all chocolate products the result of at least one fermentation step. •  Water Activity. Past Papers 2011? A very important and useful tool in phd thesis, the control of food quality attributes and food safety is igcse english, water activity (a W ). Defined as an equilibrium property (free energy) of water at a given temperature and moisture content, the concept of a W was first suggested in the 1950s when it became obvious that water content could not adequately account for microbial growth limitations. During the 1960s, researchers demonstrated that a W is also important in controlling the rates of chemical deterioration in foods, and then in the 1980s it was also found to relate to the texture of crisp dry foods and caking of powders such as instant coffee. a W is not the same as water content, or the government relations, quantitative amount of water in a sample, nor is it a measure of free compared with bound water in literature past papers 2011, a food, an early misconception that is now abandoned. Through the research of hundreds of harald dissertation, food scientists, a number of a W paradigms have been established and used by food manufacturers to create safe, tasty, and nutritious dry and igcse literature papers, semimoist foods such as crispy snacks and breakfast cereals, semimoist cookies, and creamy confections. For example, it is known that at a W values between about 0.3 and phd thesis, 0.65, changes in product texture occur (for example, loss of crispness and english literature papers 2011, onset of of icarus, stickiness, caking, or hardening), and that at a W values around 0.85 and greater, significant growth of microorganisms, including illness-causing bacteria, occurs.

In fact, the igcse english literature past, concept of a W is used in case studies, regulation of past papers 2011, food processing to ensure food safety. The  Code of Federal Regulations  (21 CFR 110.80 [b][14]) requires that “Foods such as but not limited to dry mixes, nuts, intermediate moisture foods, and dehydrated foods that rely on the control of a W for preventing the growth of microorganisms shall be processed to case studies, and maintained at literature, a safe moisture level. Compliance may be accomplished by any effective means including (i) monitoring the a W of ingredients and finished product, (ii) controlling the soluble solids-water ratio, (iii) protecting finished foods from moisture pickup so that the a W does not increase to an unsafe level .” In addition, a W is the key to control of enzyme activity, lipid oxidation, and many other reactions that have an impact on food quality, such as degradation of vitamins and essay, changes in color, flavor, and aroma (Labuza and others 1970). Figure 2 depicts the past papers, water content and a W of a few common foods. Moisture sorption isotherm relating water activity to moisture content at a specific temperature. Specific knowledge of the relationship of a W to moisture content, such as that shown in Figure 2, is useful to food manufacturers for choosing specific ingredients, such as in people observation, making a high- or intermediate-moisture food that will maintain a safe a W level (generally below 0.85). This information is also important in predicting and controlling textural changes and ingredient stability. Foods such as dry mixes, nuts, and igcse english past papers 2011, dehydrated foods rely on control of a W for preventing the growth of microorganisms.

This can be accomplished by adding food-grade acids such as citric or lactic, by adding a microbial growth inhibitor such as sodium benzoate or potassium sorbate, or by also including a smoking step, as has been done with hams and fish. The systematic control of a W through product formulation ensures the maximum quality and shelf life for dry and intermediate-moisture foods (Labuza and to john adams essay, others 1970), such as beef jerky, gummies, dried raisins and cranberries, or chewy granola bars. Many of these foods are traditional foods, but are available with improved quality attributes and convenience. Our ancestors used this method of preservation centuries ago by simply adding salt or sugar to igcse literature, meat or plant foods. The best examples are cured hams, semidry smoked salted fish, and sugared fruit slices. •  Smoking. The application of smoke to food products, primarily meats, is a very traditional process that was probably discovered by accident. It has been speculated that when ancient cave dwellers learned to cook food over open fires, it quickly became obvious to them that the smoke from the fire helped reduce the spoilage of on steganography, perishable food products such as meat and also imparted a very distinctive, desirable flavor. Over time, the smoke process was expanded to include not only meat, fish, and poultry but also, more recently, sausage products, ham, bacon, cheeses, and many other foods for which a unique smoked flavor and increased shelf life are desired. Literature Papers 2011? Classic survival foods, such as meat jerky, are produced by a combination of to john essay, smoking and dehydration and have now evolved into a wide variety of savory snack foods.

The smoke application process has evolved dramatically from open campfires to a highly controlled, scientific process, but the benefits have remained the same. Igcse Literature Past Papers? Smoke achieves 4 different functions when applied to food, all of which contribute to safer, more palatable products: Food safety. Current Research?  Smoke kills some of the igcse papers 2011, bacteria that are present on the product surface and prevents or slows the growth of others. While this has been one of the essay drosophila current research, most important roles of smoke for food preservation in the past, this effect is less critical today because several other antimicrobial processes are available. Nevertheless, smoke is still an important contributor to bacterial control in igcse english literature, smoked foods. The antibacterial effect of smoke is due to several components of letter to john, wood smoke, specifically acids and alcohol, which are formed during combustion of wood and deposited on the product surface.

Furthermore, most smoke processes are done with application of igcse english literature past papers 2011, heat at the same time, and the combination of smoke with mild heating increases the control of both spoilage and pathogenic bacteria. Smoke application usually results in some surface drying of the product as well, and people observation essay, this helps to prevent bacterial growth during subsequent storage. Qualityflavor and igcse english literature past papers 2011, aroma.  Smoke imparts a very pleasant and desirable aroma and flavor to essay, smoked foods, a role that has become more important today as consumers seek a greater variety of flavors and eating experiences. Wood smoke can be derived from a variety of wood sources, including hickory, apple, mesquite, and others, to add to the variety of flavors that can be achieved. Qualityvisual appeal. Igcse?  Smoke provides a highly attractive surface color, especially for smoked meats. The deep, rich mahogany color of a smoked ham is easily recognized by essay, consumers and communicates assurance that the associated aroma and flavor expected of a smoked ham will be delivered.

Preservation.  Smoke functions as an antioxidant or flavor protector. Several of the compounds in wood smoke, most notably complex phenols, will dramatically slow the flavor deterioration that typically occurs with development of rancidity following cooking. Despite the advantages, 3 criticisms have occasionally been leveled at the use of literature past 2011, smoke for public affairs government relations, food preservation. First is that atmospheric emissions result from english past 2011, combustion of wood to generate smoke. Second is that it degrades some food nutrients; this has been demonstrated to be of very minor importancesmoke has been shown to not significantly alter the nutrient value of food under normal circumstances. Phd Thesis? Third is that combustion of wood can generate undesirable compounds (polycyclic hydrocarbons) shown to be toxic and/or carcinogenic. Of note is that this process results in smoke deposition almost exclusively on the surface of the igcse, product, with relatively little penetration below the surfacesmoke deposition is limited to the outer ¼ to ½ inch of the product. However, smoke application can also be achieved with “liquid smoke,” a concentrated extract of phd thesis on steganography, natural wood smoke. Liquid smoke contains all of the important functional components of natural smoke and results in igcse english papers 2011, the same effects on color, flavor, and bacterial control, but it is much more consistent in current research, composition than natural smoke and therefore more reproducible in igcse english past papers, effect.

Other significant advantages to phd thesis, liquid smoke are that no atmospheric emissions are generated during smoke application, the undesirable toxic/carcinogenic components of natural smoke are not included in the extract, and the liquid smoke can be mixed into a product during manufacturing for a more uniform smoked flavor. Meat products with liquid smoke added can usually be identified by a term such as “smoke flavoring” in the ingredients list on the product label. Liquid smoke can also be applied by drenching or dipping, spraying or atomization, or use of smoke-impregnated sausage casings. These application methods result in surface deposition of smoke components with product effects that are very similar to those produced by the surface application of natural smoke. •  Irradiation.

For more than 40 y, ionizing radiation has been used commercially to destroy bacterial and insect contamination of food. Common sources of ionizing radiation today are electron beams, X-rays, and, more often, gamma rays (with the radioactive isotope cobalt-60, the same source used for radiation therapy in hospitals). Elaborate physical safeguards assure worker safety. Irradiation is particularly effective in reducing microbial contamination of hamburger meat and poultry, which can be contaminated by igcse, pathogens such as  Escherichia coli  O157:H7,  Salmonella , and  Campylobacter  and result in food-borne illness. Irradiation also may be applied to eliminate insects in a wide variety of foods, for example, flour, spices, fruits, vegetables, and grains (IFT 2004), to prevent seeds from sprouting, and to essay drosophila current research, control pathogens in fresh shell eggs, seeds for sprouting, fresh or frozen molluscan shellfish (for example, oysters, clams, mussels, and literature past 2011, scallops), and harald, fresh iceberg lettuce and english literature 2011, fresh spinach (Morehouse and phd thesis on steganography, Komolprasert 2004, FDA 2008). Low doses permit fruit to be harvested when ripe or nearly so, thus increasing nutritional and flavor quality, while still extending shelf life well beyond that of nonirradiated produce. Irradiation works by damaging the DNA of living organisms; the targets are typically bacteria and literature, insects, but the DNA of the plant or animal food is of course also affected. This poses no human risk, since normal digestion completely breaks down and affairs relations case, metabolizes the DNA, whether that damage is minimal, as with irradiation, or extensive, as with cooking. Low doses of irradiation can achieve sprout inhibition and insect de-infestation; medium doses are required for reduction of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria; and high doses are required for sterilization. Irradiated foods must be labeled as such (21 CFR 179.26[c]). Irradiation is also used at high doses and in far higher volume to sterilize joint implants, bandages, sutures, drugs, cosmetics, and wine and bottle corks (Crawford and Ruff 1996; UW Food Irradiation Education Group 2010).

The effects of irradiation on nutritional quality vary depending on igcse literature papers nutrient, food, and irradiation conditions (for example, dosage, temperature, and atmospheric conditions). Nutrient losses are similar to those occurring with heat and other processes (IFT 2004). Thiamin (vitamin B1) is sensitive to irradiation, but loss can be minimized with packaging techniques (Thayer 1990; Fox and others 1995, 1997). Irradiation does not in any way replace existing procedures for safe handling of food. Research? Instead, it is a tool to achieve what normal safe handling cannot (CDC 2010). Irradiation cannot make food safe that is already spoiled (UW Food Irradiation Education Group 2010). Because of the usefulness of irradiation in dealing with microbial risks, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and other public health authorities have endorsed its use (CDC 2010).

The same conclusions on safety and igcse english past, effectiveness have been reached by international agencies (WHO 1997; Morehouse and Komolprasert 2004). Codex Alimentarius, the letter adams, international food standard-setting agency, has published a  General Standard for Irradiated Foods  (CAC 2003a) and a  Recommended International Code of Practice  (CAC 2003b). Although regulations of irradiation of food vary from igcse literature 2011, country to country, regulations in several countries have been or are being harmonized through compliance with the essay current, Codex  General Standard  (Morehouse and Komolprasert 2004). In the United States, food irradiation is past papers, regulated as a food additive, because in the Food Additives Amendment of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1958 Congress defined radiation sources as food additives. The safety of irradiated food, which has been tested extensively, has been clearly demonstrated (Diehl 1995; Crawford and Ruff 1996; WHO 1997; Morehouse and Komolprasert 2004; CDC 2010). Government? Foods made sterile by irradiation to inactivate bacterial spores (at the highest doses) have been fed for years to patients with reduced immunity and to astronauts (CDC 2010; UW Food Irradiation Education Group 2010). Past 2011? Consumer concern over the safety of irradiated food was initially high, in part because of the misconceptions that come with the introduction of any new technology. Arguments against irradiation are similar to those voiced against public pasteurization of milk, when it was introduced 100 y ago (UW Food Irradiation Education Group 2010). Concern still exists but has gradually declined as information on igcse english past papers irradiation and its advantages have become more widely known (Conley 1992; Bruhn 1995; Morehouse and essay drosophila research, Komolprasert 2004; IFIC 2009). The world volume of irradiated food is estimated to exceed 400000 tons annually, with the largest increase occurring in Asia (Kume and literature papers 2011, others 2009).

The food industry has been slow to adopt food irradiation in the more developed nations because of the large capital investment required; there is little incentive to invest in irradiation equipment because of funds already allocated for affairs government relations case studies, refrigeration, canning, and other major processes. The situation is very different in developing areas, where existing processes are much less extensive and past, postharvest losses and the risks of dissertation, food-borne illness are far greater. Some argue that this is where the need for irradiation is greatest and the ability to afford it is the lowest. In the United States, irradiation could reduce  E. coli  in ground beef and  Salmonella  in poultry should products be contaminated, and could provide a needed pathogen kill step for fresh greens eaten raw. •  Extrusion. This process pushes a material through a specially engineered opening to give a desired shape and texture through increases in temperature, pressure, and shear forces. The pushing force is applied by using either a piston or a screw. In food applications, screw extrusion is predominant. Examples of traditional extruded foods are pasta, noodles, vermicelli, and breakfast cereals. Other extruded foods include flat bread and snack foods such as corn curls, chips, crackers, chewing gum, chocolate, and soft/chewy candy.

Extrusion is also used to create flavors and encapsulate them for heat stability in processing. Thus, this process gives a desired shape, texture, functionality, and flavor. Depending on the product, an extruder can simply be a screw press or it can be a continuous cooker. In the case of a screw press, the product is usually further processed extensively, such as by frying, baking, flaking, coating, or drying, as in the extrusion process to produce cornflakes. Igcse Literature Past Papers? A continuous cooker extruder can make products that are almost ready-to-eat (for example, puffed rice), requiring very little further processing. Inside an extruder, several processes may occur, including fluid flow, heat transfer, mixing, shearing, particle size reduction, and melting. In pasta manufacturing, for example, the main objective of the extrusion process is to partially gelatinize starch, compact the dough, and give it the desired shape. In the case of grethe dissertation, chocolate manufacturing, however, the extruder is used as a reactor to generate key flavor attributes.

And, in igcse past papers, the case of flat bread, an extruder is used to letter to john essay, develop the desired expanded and english literature past papers 2011, porous structure. Food extrusion is generally considered a high-temperature, short-time (HTST) process. The food components are exposed to temperatures above 284F for a very short time, generally a few seconds. People Observation Essay? This gives a distinct advantage over conventional pressure cooking, in english literature 2011, which the exposure could be several minutes at temperatures near 212 to 248F. Any cooking process causes loss of heat-sensitive nutrients, flavors, and colors. A combination of higher temperature and shorter time is desirable because it retains nutrients better than a combination of lower temperature and longer time. It has been found that vitamins A, C, E, B1, and folic acid are very sensitive to essay, extrusion, whereas the B-complex vitamins B2, B6, B12, niacin, calcium pantothenate, and biotin are stable during extrusion. Extrusion offers a good method for reducing antinutritional factors in legumes. For example, in peas, extrusion has been found to be more effective than germination for reducing tannins, polyphenols, and trypsin inhibitors. Extruders have been used as bioreactors for pretreatment of cereal grains for subsequent ethanol fermentation, enzymatic conversion of starch to literature papers 2011, glucose and maltose, and sterilization of phd thesis on steganography, ground spices such as black pepper, white pepper, and papers 2011, paprika. Extrusion has been shown to reduce the deleterious microorganisms in spices to well below maximum allowable levels.

Extrusion is an environmentally friendly process that uses heat and power efficiently and public government relations studies, does not produce effluents. English Past? In addition, the same equipment can be used to make a variety of on steganography, products. Extruded products are safe to consume, with no known harmful effects. •  Modified/Controlled Atmosphere. The shelf life of english past 2011, many fresh foods has been extended by controlling the composition of the gas environment in adams, direct contact with the product. For products with shelf life limited by chemical or enzymatic reactions involving oxygen, reducing or eliminating the oxygen content of the igcse past, environment provides significant extension of the relations case studies, product shelf life (Floros 1990). The shelf life of fresh fruits and vegetables is igcse, extended by controlling both the essay current, oxygen and carbon dioxide composition of the atmosphere surrounding the products, which are still actively undergoing respiration and continue to literature past, convert oxygen to essay, carbon dioxide. Large-scale controlled-atmosphere storage of fruits and vegetables has become a standard approach to maintaining the english papers 2011, highest product quality between the time of harvest and delivery to harald dissertation, the consumer.

More recently, controlled-atmosphere packaging has also become very common. Literature Papers? This approach has evolved with the development of shipping containers and packaging films that allow for selective transmission or removal of phd thesis, different respiratory gases or the igcse english literature past, natural fruit-ripening gas ethylene (Floros and affairs case studies, Matsos 2005). The modification of product atmosphere must be approached with caution, because of the response of certain microbial populations. The most serious concerns are with anaerobic pathogens, such as  Clostridium botulinum , that have the potential to grow and produce toxins in an oxygen-free environment. Several packaging systems have been developed based on these concepts, but are limited in application.

•  Additives. Food additives are adjuncts to food processing. They extend the range and igcse english literature papers, flexibility of the relatively few food processes available, and they improve the economics of the lament, processes. Literature Past 2011? For example, without stabilizers, ice cream would quickly become “grainy,” as small ice crystals grow into large ones. Without fumigants, flour and other grain products and spices would be wormy, as they once were years ago. Harald? Without fortification of english literature past 2011, milk and flour and the addition of iodine (in the form of iodate) to people observation, salt, rickets and goiter would still occur. Igcse English Literature Papers? Without artificial colors, many foods, such as gelatin, would be unattractive because natural colors lack the stability and coloring power of the synthetics. Without nonnutritive sweeteners, a great many sweetened beverages, desserts, and confections would have unacceptable calorie contents or contain levels of lament essay, sugar that cannot be consumed by certain individuals, such as people with diabetes and many others.

Anticaking agents, enzymes, preservatives, emulsifiers (which allow immiscible liquids such as oil and water to form a stable mixture), humectants (which affect moisture retention through their affinity to water and stabilizing action on literature papers 2011 water content), and many other additives add significantly to the safety, nutritive value, attractiveness, convenience, and economy of our modern food supply. The practical definition of a food additivenot the far longer, involved legal definitionis “Any substance added to food in small amounts to achieve a particular technical effect.” The  Code of letter essay, Federal Regulations  (21.170) recognizes 32 categories of additives allowed for their technical or functional effects. English Literature Papers? Among them are acidifiers, antioxidants, emulsifiers, leavening agents, micronutrients, and nonnutritive sweeteners. There is no formal distinction between “food ingredient” and “food additive.” Common usage would suggest that an ingredient used at less than perhaps 1% of harald dissertation, a food would be an “additive.” In a hard candy, for example, sugar is the food itself; color and flavor are the additives. In a lightly sweetened beverage, however, sugar could be an “additive.” There are more than 2200 additives in use, the majority of which are flavoring ingredients. Figure 3 displays the distribution of additives in use during the recent decade, ranked by per capita annual consumption in the United States food supply. Literature? The figure identifies only a few examples in the different ingredient categories.

The graph shows  use , the amount that disappears into the food supply. Actual  consumption  is significantly lower because of plate waste and, in the case of volatile additives such as flavors, volatilization. Thus, the amounts in a similar graph of actual consumption would be lower than those shown here. Observation? The median additive, with half of the total used in larger amount and half in lesser amount, is slightly more than 1 mg/person/y. The per capita consumption of a heavily used substance, such as a nutritive sweetener, frequently exceeds the per capita consumption of an past papers 2011 ingredient in affairs relations, a much less used category. Igcse English Literature Past Papers 2011? For example, a flavoring ingredient that because of its potency is used at very low levels will have a per capita consumption much lower than almost all other ingredients added to people, food. Substances intentionally added to food in decreasing order of per capita annual use.

•  Packaging. Many different types of food packages are used for igcse english papers, several different reasons. Food is packaged primarily to contain the product, protect the product from contamination, enable convenience, and provide information (Paine 1991; Robertson 1993; Yam and others 2005; IFT 2008). Most food products are delivered to the consumer in essay, some type of package. Literature Papers? Foods that have received some type of preservation process are placed in a package to ensure that the product attributes enhanced by the process are maintained. Even fresh produce is packaged after receiving a washing and cleaning process. Packaging offers a critical component of food safety by preventing contamination from harald grethe, pathogens. In addition, packaging extends the shelf life of the product by providing a physical barrier to or protection from atmospheric oxygen and moisture, light, and other agents that would accelerate deterioration of the product. Finally, packaging is the igcse literature, vehicle by affairs government studies, which legally required information is presented to the consumer in the form of the label bearing information about the product identity, quantity, ingredients, nutrient content, expiration date, and commercial source. Packaging has advanced from glass bottles, paperboard cartons, tin-plated soldered side-seam steel cans, and aluminum foil to 2-piece aluminum cans with “pop tops;” plastic, flexible, rigid, semirigid, and multilayer containers; microwave safe packages; and active and english literature, intelligent packaging (Floros and others 1997, 1998; Suppakul and others 2003; Ozdemir and Floros 2004; Yam and others 2005; Han and Floros 2007; IFT 2008). Of Icarus Essay? Innovations were driven by a number of forces, including convenience, consumer desire for igcse literature past, minimally processed foods, changes in drosophila, retail and past, distribution practices; foodservice needs; trend toward more sustainable packaging; and observation essay, demands for global and fast transport of food (Suppakul and others 2003; IFT 2008).

Aseptic packaging is a major area of food packaging that has significantly increased the safety, quality, availability, and convenience of certain foods around the world, while reducing the amount of igcse english papers, energy needed to preserve and letter adams essay, store such foods. The major difference between aseptic packaging and traditional methods of food packaging is that in aseptic packaging the product and the packaging material are continuously sterilized separately. Then, under aseptic conditions that prevent recontamination of the product, the english literature past, sterile package is filled with the cooled sterile product and lament of icarus essay, hermetically sealed to english literature past papers 2011, produce a shelf-stable final product with extended shelf life and no need for refrigerated storage. This technique has allowed for dissertation, substantial improvements in the quality of the final product, mainly due to the much milder heat treatment that the product undergoes compared to the traditional thermal process (Floros 1993). Igcse English Literature? Large-scale aseptic bulk processing and packaging, combined with aseptic storage and transportation, contributes significantly to reduction of postharvest fruit and vegetable losses and lament, greater availability of these food products around the world. Many advances in igcse papers, the packaging of food took place in the past 20 to 30 y, producing a wide variety of new materials and adams essay, processing technologies. The steady accumulation of igcse literature 2011, research developments indicates that food packaging will continue to evolve and respond to the changing needs of the food system and of icarus essay, the increased demands of consumers. To meet consumers’ growing demands for fresh-like and highly nutritious foods with guaranteed safety, several alternative preservation technologies have been developed during the past 15 to 25 y for application to food products. These technologies include both (1) novel thermal processes such as microwave and ohmic heating, which are much faster than the igcse literature past papers, currently widespread canning method to produce shelf-stable foods and letter to john adams, (2) other physical methods that do not use heat as a primary mode of inactivating microorganisms in foods, such as ultra-high pressure (UHP), pulsed electric fields, ultrasonic waves, high-intensity pulsed light, and others. Each of these alternative technologies has unique characteristics and igcse papers 2011, potential for expanded applications in different categories of food products.

The goal of government relations, all the new processes is to reduce the overall time and temperature exposures of the foods so that they are safe and more like fresh or freshly cooked items. The nonthermal methods are primarily being used to replace traditional thermal pasteurization of foods. •  Microwave Heating. This method of papers, heating prepared foods and beverages and cooking raw foods is well known and accepted by consumers, but applications for food preservation are still evolving. Harald? Some microwave-processed foods are marketed in igcse english 2011, Europe and essay drosophila current, Japan. In the past year, FDA accepted applications under the literature past, low-acid canned food regulations for microwave sterilization, both in a continuous mode for lament of icarus, a sweet potato puree that is aseptically packaged in sterile flexible pouches, and for a semicontinuous process for prepackaged food in limited batches. •  Ohmic Heating. This process, also called electrical resistance heating, Joule heating, or electroheating, involves passing electricity through the food via contact with charged electrodes. The electrical energy results in igcse 2011, rapid, uniform heating, in contrast to essay current, the slow conduction and convection heating of conventional thermal processing, thereby allowing for greater quality than canned counterparts.

It is past papers 2011, particularly useful for heat-sensitive proteinaceous foods (Ramaswamy and observation essay, others 2005). Ohmic heating has been applied in limited situations to such foods as cut and whole fruit and liquid eggs, but applications may expand to soups and similar items in the future. •  High-Pressure Processing. This process, also known as high-hydrostatic-pressure processing and UHP processing, seems to have a promising future for food preservation, since reductions in english, microbial populations can be accomplished without significant elevation of product temperature. The use of pressures approaching 100000 pounds per square inch for holding times of harald grethe dissertation, a few minutes produces a processed food with the igcse papers 2011, taste, color, and texture similar to fresh. Following the successful introduction of a pressure-treated guacamole product in 1997, a growing number of ready-to-eat meats and other refrigerated items, including raw oysters, have been treated by high pressure to meet food safety standards for such products and have increased their high-quality shelf life. When elevated temperatures are used in combination with UHP, the dissertation, microbial spores in the food can be inactivated. In 2009, a pressure-assisted thermal sterilization process developed by a consortium of Army and igcse english past papers, industrial researchers at the Natl. Center for Food Safety and letter adams essay, Technology was accepted under the low-acid canned food regulations by FDA (NCFST 2009). This process is more rapid and igcse literature past 2011, less damaging to harald grethe, several food quality attributes than traditional thermal sterilization because application of pressure rapidly and uniformly heats packaged food in literature past, the pressure vessel to the desired end temperature, and people, then, when pressure is released after a few minutes the product returns to the original temperature.

•  Pulsed Electric Fields. English Papers? Use of very high voltage (20 kV) and very short, microsecond, electric pulses has potential as a nonthermal method for pasteurization of fruit juices and other fluid or pumpable products. The process is being optimized, but more information needs to be evaluated on the impact of the grethe, process on food components, first to assure microbiological safety and then to determine the impact on igcse english past 2011 sensory quality as well as content of key nutrients (Sanchez-Moreno and others 2009). Recent research has shown not only that some of these alternative novel processes allow production of very high quality items, but also that those items may have a higher nutritive value than similar items produced by traditional thermal processes because the novel processes result in less chemical damage of key micronutrients. To achieve acceptance first by the regulatory authorities and then by consumers will require an overall evaluation of each of these novel processes. Approximately 30 to 40% of raw food materials and ingredients are lost between the points of production and essay, consumption. The magnitude of past papers 2011, these losses, and the contributing factors, are different in developing countries compared to industrialized countries (Godfray and others 2010). For example, food losses in the developing world are primarily due to the lack of an infrastructure, as well as lack of knowledge of or investment in the means to protect from phd thesis, losses arising from damage and igcse english literature 2011, spoilage attributable to rodents, insects, molds, and other microorganisms. Significant losses occur during production, harvesting, and on-farm storage. Letter To John Adams? In contrast, in industrialized countries, food losses are more significant in retail and foodservice establishments and in the home. The losses in developed countries are attributable to several factors, including the papers, relatively low costs of food and the lack of incentives to avoid wastes (Godfray and others 2010).

Commercial food manufacturing operations are more efficient in the conversion of phd thesis on steganography, raw materials into consumer products than home processing and igcse english literature past papers, preparation. Moreover, there are significant economic incentives for food manufacturing operations to minimize waste streams, resulting in the use of new or modified processing methods, in-plant treatment, and reuse (Hang 2004). Many food processing waste streams are used for animal feed (Hudson 1971), and processes have been developed for converting waste materials into biofuels, food ingredients, and other edible, valuable bioproducts (Hang 2004). These waste-management practices are being refined as part of the trends in life-cycle assessment of the environmental impact of the entire food chain (Ohlsson 2004). On Steganography? Through such assessments, the food industry is identifying the steps in the food chain that have the greatest environmental impact. The assessments become the basis for selection of alternative raw materials, packaging materials, and other inputs, and an overall improvement in waste-management strategies (Ohlsson 2004). Life-cycle assessments provide a much more accurate understanding of energy consumption and waste production than popular concepts such as food miles (Mattsson and Sonesson 2003). An example of life-cycle assessments is the comparison of high value added products, such as pork, with a highly productive crop, such as potatoes. The analysis indicates that for the high value added product, the largest energy consumption and igcse literature papers, production of emissions and other wastes is in letter adams essay, the agricultural sector (that is, on the farm). In contrast, the major part of energy use for a highly productive crop is by the consumer (in the home) (Ohlsson 2004).

Thus, to reduce energy contributions to igcse english literature 2011, global warming and affairs government studies, generation of pollutants, it would be appropriate to target reductions where they would have the greatest effect (for example, on the farm for items such as pork and in the home for items such as potatoes) rather than simply focusing on food miles or food processing. In summary, the processing of a food or beverage includes an array of technologies and processes to transform raw food materials and ingredients into consumer food products. The primary purpose of these processes is for preservation (for example, transforming perishable fruits and vegetables with the highest quality outcome possible into products available throughout the year around the world) and to ensure food safety. The processing of a food does create some changes in igcse english past papers 2011, the quality attributes of the product. In some cases, these changes are intentional and provide improvements in the nutritive quality, texture, appearance, and observation, flavor of the past, product. In other cases, the changes may simply make the product different, without improving or changing its quality. Processed foods and beverages can have positive nutrient benefits beyond those of the raw or home-prepared product. Nutrient retention is highly variable, depending on commodity, cultivar, timing of harvesting, storage conditions, nutrient type (for example, sensitivity to heat or oxygen, and water solubility), and processing method. Of Icarus Essay? Depending on these variables, processed foods may have more nutritional value (due to greater bioavailability of beta-carotene or lycopene, for example) than the fresh product (Rickman and others 2007a, 2007b). Igcse English Literature Past Papers? In addition, some processed products (for example, canned and current, frozen fruits and vegetables) are often a better value for the consumer than the “fresh” or raw product. Food expenditures, as a percentage of household expenditures, in the United States are the lowest in the world: 5.6% compared to 9.1% in Canada, 11.4% in igcse english papers, Germany, 24.1% in Mexico, and 44.1% in Indonesia (ERS 2008).

Cost is an letter adams extremely important variable to most consumers in making food and other purchases, particularly to those with low incomes. Igcse Literature Past Papers? Many of the public affairs relations, most economical foodsprocessed meats, snack foods, caloric soft drinkshave high-calorie contents. People purchase them because they like the taste and consistency, and because they are good value. They have a legitimate role in our food supply, but that role should not be excessively large. The future of the agriculture and food system will be largely determined by the trajectory of 3 major trends: the english literature 2011, population and its associated demographics; availability and public affairs government relations studies, type of energy resources; and climate as it influences available land, water, and igcse english past papers 2011, air quality. Population is the most important by far, since it drives the others (given the impact on demand for arable land, for example) through its multiplier, the affairs government case, standard of living (consumption rate). However, the technologies deployed will also be a matter of scientific understanding, public policy, consumer attitudes, and fiscal resources. Historical perspectives and future development. Assuming that the goal is igcse, a sustainable future, Warren Belasco (2006) considered in his book  Meals to Come: A History of the Future of Food  the perspectives of 3 people living in the 1790s: Thomas Malthus, who was concerned about population growth; the enlightenment philosopher Jean-Antoine-Nicolas de Condorcet; and William Godwin, who believed that inequitable distribution was the problem. From these historical perspectives, Belasco proposed 3 possible cornucopian futures: (1) the classical, based on expansion into new areas (for example, expand food production and processing); (2) the modern, the harald, belief in scientific and technological solutions; and (3) the recombinant, a blend of the radical modern with the english literature past 2011, familiar classical (for example, share resources more efficiently). Wrangham (2009) called for increased research into food physics, or what has recently been termed “food materials science,” especially the relationships between food structure and nutritional value.

While Michael Pollan (2008), in his book  In Defense of Food: An Eater's Manifesto , laments modern “nutritionism,” he points to the need for more science as well. Foreshadowing today's “molecular gastronomy” (study of the physical and chemical processes occurring during cooking), Gerald Wendt, science director of the 1939 World's Fair, wrote that foods “will abandon all pretense of imitating nature” (Belasco 2006). In reality, this has always been the case; for example, bread, cheese, and tofu are all foods that are created from the raw substances of nature but have no natural analogs. Food culture evolves, albeit slowly. In his classic dystopic 1973 novel  Make Room, Make Room , on which the public affairs studies, movie  Soylent Green  was based, Harry Harrison envisioned a meager and past papers 2011, unappetizing diet of soybean and lentil steaks, tilapia, soymilk, seaweed, and energy drinks (Harrison 1973). Today, however, some people seek out these products (quite a change in 2 generations). To John Adams? Harrison mentioned chlorella (algae) oil as the lowest of food ingredients, but chlorella is literature past 2011, now taken by some as a supplement or added to foods or animal feeds to boost omega-3 intake. Surimi is an example of technology applied to increase both stability and distribution of lament of icarus, a raw commodity (fish) but that also increases the value of the product, as in surimi-based imitation crab. In the future, many other new products from fish may be seen, just as has been the case with numerous meat sausages.

Not only can the conversion of macronutrients (for example, proteins and english past, carbohydrate polysaccharides) to calories be modulated by harald dissertation, processing (such as the effect of high-pressure processing on protein conformation and hence conversion to calories), but also micronutrients bound up in the cellular structure of english literature papers, foods can be made more bioavailable by appropriate novel processing methods, such as high-pressure processing and pulsed electric fields (Sanchez-Moreno and others 2009). Even if heating may result in a lower total quantity of vitamins and other micronutrients in the food than in their raw counterparts, making them appear less nutritious, the adams essay, bioavailability of past 2011, some of phd thesis, these micronutrients may actually be greater, making some processed foods more healthful. Novel emerging processes not totally relying on heat seem to offer the potential to increase bioavailability of igcse english papers 2011, classic micronutrients and to spare many of the labile phytochemicals (plant metabolites, some of which are known to have human health benefits) that are a major advantage of fresh fruits and vegetables. Solving the diet-and-disease challenge. The solutions to the diet-and-disease problem are complex and essay drosophila, require a multipronged strategy from both the public and private sectors.

The report of the 2010 DGAC recognized that ensuring that all Americans consume a health-promoting dietary pattern and achieve and maintain energy balance requires far more than individual behavior change (DGAC 2010). The DGAC's report contained 4 primary recommendations: •  Reduce the incidence and prevalence of overweight and obesity of the U.S. population by english literature papers, reducing overall calorie intake and increasing physical activity; •  shift food intake patterns to a more plant-based diet and lament of icarus, increase the intake of seafood and igcse english past papers, fat-free and low-fat milk and milk products and consume only moderate amounts of lean meats, poultry, and eggs; •  significantly reduce intake of phd thesis on steganography, foods containing added sugars and solid fats, reduce sodium intake, and lower intake of igcse english 2011, refined grains; and •  meet the lament, 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. The report expressed an urgent call to action and igcse english literature papers 2011, recommended that a strategic plan be developed that focuses on the behaviors and actions needed to successfully implement these 4 key recommendations. A healthful diet is determined in totality, not just by a choice to include or exclude one single food or beverage. Decision-making and priority setting should be made in case studies, this context. Policy makers must carefully consider promoting an environment where better and english 2011, more nutritious foods are readily available, while respecting consumer choice. Recently, local governments have created bans on certain food ingredients such as  trans  fats. While we have a history of understanding the impact of food fortification, the impact of this type of of icarus, regulation is not yet clear and remains to be demonstrated.

Consider salt as an example. The typical American consumes almost 150% of the recommended daily value for sodiumalmost a tablespoon a day. A recent report by the Inst. of Medicine (IOM 2010) declares that voluntary salt reduction has not worked. Igcse English Literature? The IOM recommendations include modification by FDA of the Generally Recognized as Safe status of ingredients containing sodium and national standards to lower consumption, stepwise reduction in salt content of government relations studies, processed foods and menu items in restaurants to allow American consumers to adapt their tastes to foods with lower levels of sodium, enhanced monitoring and surveillance of english, compliance with the current research, recommended new FDA standards, increased funding for research that links salt consumption to consumer preferences at different stages in human life, and development of programs that increase consumer awareness of elevated salt consumption. The most widely understood functional property of english literature 2011, salt in foods is enhancement of flavor. Consumers can adapt their tastes to lower levels of public studies, salt in their diet over time (Dahl 2005), but an abrupt change may lead to widespread resistance (IOM 2010). Mandated reduction in igcse past papers, salt content of formulated foods and restaurant recipes would need to be carefully coordinated, as salt concentration provides significant economic advantage to on steganography, those who do not comply. Surveillance of restaurants that are not bound by strict recipes but have chef autonomy will be difficult to monitor.

Also, the igcse english literature papers 2011, freedom of consumers to add their own salt via readily available shakers makes it difficult to determine actual levels of consumption (Dahl 2005). Salt functions as a preservative by lowering a W to inhibit or halt microbial growth. The safety of some formulated products would not be affected by salt reduction, but the safety of many others could be compromised (Taormina 2010). Salt-cured products such as country hams that contain as much as 1700 mg of sodium (70% of the daily value) in just a 3-ounce serving (Voltz and Harvell 1999) would probably disappear from supermarket shelves and restaurant menus. Other products that could be at risk with significant reduction in sodium content include deli meats, hard and soft cheeses, baked pastries, and salad dressings. Salt is phd thesis on steganography, also used to english, control fermentations for products such as olives and pickles, which could be compromised with insufficient levels of salt (Taormina 2010). Overconsumption of total calories coupled with very low physical activity and too much sedentary time is the driving force behind the obesity epidemic, rather than the macronutrient distribution of a person's diet (DGAC 2010). On Steganography? Consumers must make more healthful choices of diet and exercise.

Excessively sedentary lifestyles must be modified with more physical activity. Literature Papers? Clear, accurate informationnot misinformationabout the foods themselves must be provided, and far more extensive education is needed about how to use that information in affairs studies, making healthful, economical food choices. More emphasis is needed on the potential adverse consequences of poor eating habits, and the benefits of more healthful ones. Igcse Past 2011? Choosing foods wisely is a survival skill, one that has received far too little attention. More consumers are born every year, and those efforts must begin early in life and continue through the years.

Many resources are still being devoted to increasing the availability of indulgent foods that do not contribute to letter adams, meeting the 2011, nutrient needs of consumers. The food industry must use innovation pipelines and resources to produce foods and of icarus essay, beverages that are more nutrient-rich rather than energy dense to literature past 2011, assist the consumer in the quest for a healthful diet. This approach is equally as important for responsibly using resources and to john adams, reducing waste as is the use of technologies described above. This applies both to consumers who are food secure as well as to those who are food insecure. There are some models of the english literature papers 2011, food industry working in partnership to address these complex problems (Yach and others 2010). Responsible marketing is also part of the solution to adams, a healthful diet. Reduced-energy foods and beverages may help to english literature past 2011, moderate energy, sugar, or fat intake, but only if substituted for energy-rich versions. Simply including them in the diet may fail to reduce energy balance. For example, recommending tea or coffee consumption (Popkin and others 2006) does not reduce energy intake for those who add sugar or cream and may replace nutrient-rich options such as milk. The foodservice industry must provide healthful offerings with available nutritional information and appropriate portions.

Foodservice establishments have moved steadily toward larger portion sizes, as a result of consumer purchasing patterns. Food researchers must set responsible goals for application of technologies that fill the knowledge gaps, to guide the public government case, food industry in developing better products and the policy makers in developing more effective public health messages. There is still much to literature papers, be learned about the relationship of diet composition and letter, energy balance, the effect of reduced-energy versions of foods and beverages on igcse literature past signaling systems, and the connection between reduced-energy products with enhanced palatability and energy intake. An important area of needed research is behavior modification for consumers to achieve a more healthful diet promoted by public health messages. It would be neither practical nor possible to return to an idyllic pastoral food system. Phd Thesis? Procuring food is english literature past, hard work, and though many in the industrialized countries enjoy the rewards of a home garden, few would be willing to return to subsistence farming and home food preparation full time. In the short term, the on steganography, local food movement will likely expand as a result of consumer demand, as seen in the urban farms springing up in places such as Detroit, Michigan. But the local food movement has its limits, since many consumers will continue to demand out-of-season and igcse english literature past papers 2011, exotic foods that cannot be grown locally, and climate conditions prevent the efficient growth of food year round in all regions. Furthermore, when water availability and the threat of desertification are considered, it can actually be more sustainable to ship grain longer distances, for example, from the United States to Kenya, than to grow it locally (Roberts 2008). With the world population expected to reach 9 billion by 2050, it is necessary to find a means to sustainably produce about 50% more food than is currently produced.

In particular, it will be necessary to provide substantially more protein, yet with substantially lower external costs (resulting impacts) (Roberts 2008). Also, application of simple and harald, appropriate processing technologies (for example, drying) and packaging and shipping methods close to literature papers, food production sites to counter the large percentage of waste (up to 50% by some estimates) in less-developed areas must be fostered. Some people have envisioned urban farming in vertical greenhouses or in currently blighted urban landscapes, but this seems a rather large investment of materials and energy with perhaps the only benefit being limited local production. Similarly, while single-cell protein from algae may make sense nutritionally, it faces many hurdles, both economic and cultural. Precision farming may build on current thrusts in both organic and sustainable green agriculture to benefit both those in the developed world and those in the developing countries, where basic sustenance is a growing concern. Ronald and Adamchak (2010) stated in  Tomorrow's Table  that “the judicious incorporation of 2 important strands of agriculturegenetic engineering and organic farmingis key to helping feed the growing population in dissertation, an ecologically balanced manner.” Mixed crop and livestock production systems, used to produce about half of the world's food supply, offer important synergies, such as using livestock draft power to cultivate land and manure to fertilize soil, crop residues to feed livestock, and income from livestock products to buffer against low crop yields (Herrero and igcse english literature 2011, others 2010). It has been suggested that the of icarus essay, small-holder farmers in these systems should be the first target for policies to sustainably intensify production by carefully managed inputs of fertilizer, water, and feed to minimize waste and environmental impact, supported by improved access to markets, new varieties, and technologies (Herrero and igcse english literature past 2011, others 2010). As those in industrialized countries become more aware of the beneficial phytochemical nutrients found in many crops in developing countries, such as fruits from the tropics or quinoa from South America, export markets for those foods may emerge to stabilize local economies if appropriate food processing and transport infrastructures can be upgraded. Hurdle technology, using combinations of minimal technologies, has been used in developed countries for manufacturing ready-to-eat products, and may hold considerable potential for preserving certain traditional items in developing cultures. Leistner and Gould (2002) reported that much progress had been made in Latin America and India, and that interest in this technology has been seen in China, Taiwan, and Africa. There is hope for the future by embracing a “recombinant” strategy, as Belasco (2006) proposed, blending the best of the classical food sources with modern technologies.

Aquaculture, when combined with hydroponics to form aquaponics, and innovations in meat production efficiency hold great promise for the efficient production of high-quality protein. Federoff and others (2010) suggested that aquaculture, integrated with agriculture, is phd thesis, part of the answer to meeting the demands for food, feed, fiber, and fuel, given the implications of population growth, arable land and freshwater limits, and climate change. In addition, the judicious application of english literature papers 2011, recombinant DNA biotechnology (rDNA, discussed in lament, a subsequent section) offers the ability to more rapidly transform some of the less highly bred plants, such as quinoa. Looking at teosinte now as corn or maize's ancient ancestor, would the productivity of hybrid maize be predicted? rDNA biotechnology could be harnessed to papers, improve the protein quality of essay, cereal grains and could also be employed to improve crops such as sorghum and millet to reduce antinutrients and build in drought tolerance. This would involve a shift in application of the biotechnology to more directly benefit consumers instead of growers and manufacturers. A new Green Revolution may include an igcse english past papers 2011 accelerated mutation breeding program (use of chemical or radiation mutagens to introduce genetic change) to build in traits to on steganography, better preserve quality and nutrient content of key food commodities.

The 21st century has seen increased growth in knowledge of the human genome, the genomes of microorganisms, and the human microbiome (communities of microbial cells within the human body) (Human Microbiome Project 2010). In the future, as we learn many more of the complex interactions of the thousands of compounds in common foods with the human genome and intestinal microflora, the old adage “You are what you eat” may well evolve into igcse literature past papers, an optimal nutrition strategy to serve the growing human population. It is difficult to make predictions in such a rapidly changing scientific and essay current research, technological atmosphere, but it is certain that the english 2011, “designer foods” concept (following the concept of essay, personalized nutrition, which is enabled by knowledge of one's genome and biome) will take on new meaning in coming years, given the accelerating pace of both the science base and technical innovation. An  ad hoc  committee of the Natl. Research Council was charged with examining the igcse papers 2011, current state of biological research in the United States and recommending how best to capitalize on recent scientific and technological advances to find solutions to 4 major societal needs, including sustainable food production. The committee's main recommendation was for a coordinated, interagency initiative to encourage the emergence of a “New Biology” approach to challenging problems, described in drosophila current research, the book  New Biology for the 21st Century  (NRC 2009). The essence of the New Biology is integration, described as a new level of inquiry that reintegrates the subdisciplines of biology and integrates physicists, chemists, computer scientists, engineers, and mathematicians, purposefully organized around problem solving. With respect to literature past, the food challenge, the harald dissertation, New Biology requires parallel application of several technologies; computational modeling of plant growth and development at the molecular and past papers, cellular levels; cell-type specific-gene expression, proteomic, and metabolomic data; high-throughput visual and chemical phenotyping; methods to characterize the drosophila research, dynamics and english past papers, functions of microbial communities; and ready access to next-generation sequencing methods. With an integrated approach to these needs, predictive models of plant growth at the cellular and molecular level detail would allow scientific plant breeding of a new type, in which genetic changes could be targeted in a manner that would predictably result in food plants that adapt and grow sustainably in changing environments (NRC 2009). Emerging areas affecting health and wellness. There are several research areas that have the potential to greatly affect the quality of food and human health and wellness.

• Personalized Nutrition. Humans have emerged from evolution with a remarkable flexibility in the range of current, phenotypes that they can adopt. English? Human adults vary in height, weight, strength, speed, endurance, flexibility, cognition, and other traits. Furthermore, humans apply these phenotypes to a remarkable range of lifestyles, varying in everything from daily activities such as endurance exercise to recreational pursuits ranging from music, art, and athletics to preference for harald dissertation, foods. Igcse Literature 2011? This basic biological truth means that as science gains more information on the interaction among genetics, environment, and affairs government relations studies, phenotype, people will want to igcse english literature papers, use the controllable variables of their environmentdiet and to john, exercise, for exampleto guide their own personal phenotype. One consequence of english literature, human diversity relates to the observable variations in disease susceptibility. Essay? Disease resistance is one aspect of phenotype that everyone would like to improve.

The first priority of life science research, of course, is to igcse past 2011, understand the basis of varying predisposition to, cures of, and recovery from disease (Collins and others 2003). Observation Essay? The future will see humans take charge of the variables of environment to guide their own health to lower their disease risks and igcse english papers 2011, speed recovery. Personalizing diet will be essential to their success. The research investments of the 20th century have chronicled the basic biological processes, detailed the basic genetic sequence of to john adams, organisms, and linked the complex interweaving pathways of english past 2011, biochemistry to letter essay, variations in anatomy, metabolism, physiology, immunology, so on. Scientists are already cataloguing these same processes but are now into assigning the details of individuals. The field of nutrigenomics (interaction of dietary components such as essential nutrients with genes) is igcse past, seeking to assign the variations in dietary responses of humans to specific genetic sequences (Muller and Kersten 2003). In parallel, the field of metabolomics is building the tools to both diagnose individual variations in metabolism and identify the harald, solutions to improve it (German and others 2004, 2005). As science and technologies are racing to reduce disease, the relationships between basic biology and human performance are also emerging (Handschin and Spiegelman 2008). As science understands the basis of human disease and prevention, technologies will compete to bring solutions to practice. All aspects of literature past, interventiondrugs, diet, and harald dissertation, lifestylewill be recruited to lower disease risk.

These solutions will have to igcse past, solve the 2 key dimensions of preventionindividualization and integration. Diets must be individualized, since all people are not predisposed to the same health problems. Lament Of Icarus? In addition, diets must be integrated, since no single ingredient, bioactive or therapeutic, can solve all issues at once. The concept of multiple ingredients solving multiple targets combined into products is a logical direction for literature past 2011, food. Foods can already be used in a personalized wayto lower cholesterol, improve blood pressure, alter intestinal microflora, and guide immunity.

The food industry and all of its support and regulatory systems will have to come to grips with this new reality. One of the fundamental problems of the current functional-food and health-claim system is the wildly optimistic pursuit of food ingredients that are equally effective and safe for observation essay, all consumers. Personalizing will change the value system of health-promoting foods and its regulatory oversight as the benefits are targeted directly to those who respond. Parsing individual response (based on igcse past papers 2011 the individual's genotype) is at least as complex a challenge as the letter, task of increasing or decreasing the amount of english, a specific protein, fatty acid, or other component of the plant itself (Brigelius-Flohe and Joost 2006). Functional-food components are of increasing interest in public relations case studies, reducing risk of a number of the leading causes of death: cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension. Many food components, such as plant-derived estrogens (phytoestrogens), are known to influence the expression of both structural genes and transcription factors (a sequence-specific DNA binding factor that controls the english past, transfer of genetic information from DNA to messenger RNA) in humans (Kaput and others 2007). Genistein, coumestrol, and zearalenone, for example, bind to harald, the estrogen receptor and may switch on a similar set of genes, such as 17β-estradiol, the physiologic estrogen.

As personalization of health becomes increasingly important, many aspects of the agricultural enterprise will adapt to capture markets. For example, the growing catalog of plant and animal genomes will broaden the commodities routinely cultivated to fuel the food supply. The food industry will move away from uniform branded products to branded platforms on igcse english 2011 which products are customizable. Marketing and distribution chains will also become more intimate as consumers value the personal information exchange that is critical to their foods and overall diets. The net results will once again be a marked improvement in the human condition, the quality of human lives, andas has always been true when humans are healthy and happythe rate at which we innovate. It is a very attractive future. • Molecular Biology. Molecular biology is currently being revolutionized by whole-genome sequencing of individual microbes, as well as entire microbial communities, a field known as metagenomics (Wooley and observation, others 2010).

These new advances are also being complemented by english literature past 2011, our increasing understanding of gene expression and metabolism at the level of individual cells and complex microbial communities, such as those that exist within the human gastrointestinal tract. Sophisticated gene expression arrays based on whole-genome sequences are now allowing us to see for phd thesis, the first time the complex and dynamic regulation of virulence genes (those coding for a pathogen's illness-causing potential)  in vivo  during the various stages of infection (Toledo-Arana and others 2009). These recent advances will increasingly improve our understanding of how pathogenic microorganisms interact with humans and will lead to novel strategies for detecting and controlling those key pathogens that most affect human health. English Past 2011? For example, using special whole-genome “tiling” microarraysconcentrated, orderly arrangements of essay, thousands of english literature, gene probes on harald a glass slide, used to detect all genes present within a microorganism or measure the level of expression of all genes within a microorganismwith overlapping nucleotides, Toledo-Arana and others (2009) were able to english papers 2011, demonstrate how expression of various virulence genes dramatically changed as the dissertation, microorganism switched from being a saprophyte (an organism that lives on dead organic matter) in the environment to english literature past papers 2011, a pathogen in harald grethe dissertation, infected hosts. In the past, microbiologists focused on detecting and controlling various genera and species of past 2011, pathogens in foods and humans. Harald Dissertation? However, with the above recent advances scientists can now identify those specific genetic determinants that actually make a specific strain of a microorganism harmful to humans. Past 2011? This will allow a much more targeted, efficient, and cost-effective approach to detecting and essay, controlling those strains of a species that are most likely to cause disease.

This will allow food processors and government agencies to develop much more highly focused intervention strategies that will maximize control of english 2011, those strains most likely to cause disease. Also, identification of novel genetic determinants responsible for transmission and virulence will lead to rapid sequence-based approaches for essay, determining the molecular epidemiology of various pathogens (Chen and others 2010). Such rapid sequence-based approaches are becoming increasingly high throughput and cost effective and igcse literature 2011, have numerous other advantages, including much greater specificity, reproducibility, epidemiologic relevance, and portability via the Internet. Such advances will result in a global sequence-based epidemiology network for rapidly tracking and controlling dangerous strains of food-borne pathogens, which increasingly are capable of people, being quickly spread around the globe as a result of international trade and air travel. Metagenomics is english literature past, starting to reveal the diverse, complex, and dynamic microbial communities in the human gastrointestinal tract, many of whose members may be unculturable in the laboratory (Ley and others 2008; Wooley and others 2010). Microbial members of the microbiome in the human gastrointestinal tract actually outnumber their eukaryotic counterparts (organisms whose cells have a nucleus that contains their genetic material) in the human body and may be playing major roles in maintaining and promoting human health (Neish 2009). Recent advances in metagenomics will have a major impact on our understanding of phd thesis on steganography, how probioticsmicrobes that have a beneficial health effect and are of increasing importance to both consumers and the food industrycontribute to human health. Probiotics will continue to gain in importance as the population ages and more people become at risk for various pathogenic and chronic diseases and increasingly look for novel probiotics that can prolong health and wellness.

Molecular methods will allow food scientists to identify those genetic determinants that are critical for probiotic effects and introduce those strains into more different kinds of foods to help consumers achieve their health and english papers, wellness goals. Whole-genome and dissertation, metagenomic approaches will also be used to better understand how probiotic microorganisms interact with both the igcse english literature past papers 2011, human microbiota and people observation essay, human cells and igcse english papers 2011, organs to achieve various health and observation essay, wellness benefits. These same techniques will also allow researchers to engineer “designer probiotics” that target specific pathogens and igcse literature past, toxins. Pathogen-derived stress-response genes might be used to create more robust probiotic strains with increased host and processing-associated stress-tolerance profiles. Also, functional metagenomics may be used to identify novel genes with probiotic attributes from diverse and essay, vastly unexplored environments, such as the human gastrointestinal tract (Culligan and igcse english literature 2011, others 2009). Whole-genome approaches will also be used to develop novel molecular methods for tracking and controlling specific strains of probiotics throughout the food system. This will allow food companies to differentiate the unique probiotic products they have developed from to john essay, others in the marketplace. English Literature Past? These approaches will allow food companies to both promote these unique products and people observation essay, also protect their investment, thus increasing profitability. • Microbial Ecology. With potential impact on food quality and health and wellness, microbial ecology examines the diversity of english past 2011, microorganisms and how microorganisms interact with each other and letter to john, their environment to generate and maintain such diversity. While microbial ecology is not a new concept, it is of increasing interest to many food microbiologists, because it explains the presence and functioning of microbes in igcse literature 2011, complex and dynamic food environments, both outside and inside the gastrointestinal tract.

Another reason microbial ecology is letter to john adams essay, undergoing a renaissance is the development and application of genomics tools. Culture-independent genomics tools are now allowing more accurate estimations of the total microbial ecology in foods inside and outside the gastrointestinal tract. However, genomics tools have also exposed how little we know about the vast diversity of microorganisms that colonize foods and igcse english literature, the human gastrointestinal tract. Foods outside the gastrointestinal tract often harbor a complex and dynamic community of nonpathogenic spoilage flora that affect various quality attributes, such as taste, flavor, texture, appearance, and shelf life. Essay? They also often can contain pathogens and probiotic bacteria that can greatly influence the igcse past papers, health and wellness of humans who consume them. After foods enter the gastrointestinal tract, microbial ecology becomes even more complex and phd thesis on steganography, dynamic, as a result of the interaction of the numerous biotic and abiotic factors located there. Until very recently, microbial diversity in igcse past 2011, these environments was estimated using culture-dependent approaches. However, the culture-dependent methods cannot accurately describe naturally occurring microbial communities, because they only target those we know how to culture and those that can grow in a specific growth medium.

In the past 20 y, the application of genomics and metagenomics tools has revolutionized microbial ecology studies and drastically expanded our view of the previously underappreciated microbial world, including environments on and in foods and those within the human gastrointestinal tract (Xu 2006). How can we best use microbial ecological data gained through genomic analysis to better understand and affairs government relations, control microorganisms on foods and in the gastrointestinal tract? To answer this question, an interdisciplinary systems approach is needed. This approach will require the integration of the igcse past 2011, analyses at various levels of ecological organization, from subcellular and cellular levels to those of individuals, populations, communities, and government relations case, ecosystems. Indeed, the American Society for Microbiology has issued a call to past papers, create an integrated approach called systems microbiology to to john, coordinate such efforts and to set it as a priority area for past papers 2011, future development (ASM 2005). As we understand more about the complex and dynamic microbial ecology of essay research, foods, we will be in a better position to igcse literature past 2011, manipulate those biotic and essay current, abiotic factors that enhance food quality and/or health and past 2011, wellness. A number of other new technologies are being developed, with promising and potential benefits. • Biotechnology. In the of icarus, simplest and broadest sense, biotechnology is a series of past papers 2011, technologies applied to living organisms or their subcellular components to develop useful products, processes, or services. Many of the products we eat and wear are, or can be, developed using the tools of biotechnology.

The first generation of products commercialized from to john adams essay, biotechnology were crops focusing largely on input agronomic traits, primarily in papers, response to biotic stresspressure from organisms such as viruses, bacteria, and insects that can harm plantsand the vast majority of biotechnology crops have been in the area of research, pest resistance and igcse english literature 2011, herbicide tolerance. Biotechnology-derived papaya, squash, and sweet corn are commercially available in the United States; enzymes produced using recombinant DNA methods are used to make cheese and low-lactose milk, keep bread fresh, and produce fruit juices and wines; and bioengineered  E. coli  is used to produce human insulin (Baines 1991; Lemaux 2008; Newell-McGloughlin 2008). Harald? Two varieties of ricereferred to as Golden Ricehaving increased levels of beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, have been developed and are in use in the Philippines, India, Bangladesh, China, and Vietnam (Lemaux 2008). Other products made using rDNA methods include food supplements such as vitamin B2 (riboflavin) (Lemaux 2008). Igcse English Literature Past? Significant advances in food biotechnology applications are occurring in many areas (Newell-McGloughlin 2008). These include increasing vitamin levels in crops, such as vitamin E in soybean, maize, and canola, and increasing bioavailable iron levels in rice, maize, and lettuce. Biotechnology is also being used to on steganography, reduce food allergens, address food intolerances, and igcse literature, reduce naturally occurring toxins in plants. There is tremendous potential in additional opportunities, described below. The Intl. Food Information Council's thirteenth annual survey of consumer perceptions of food biotechnology (IFIC 2008) found that concerns about biotech use are low and that the likelihood to purchase biotechnology-derived foods for special benefits remains high and stable.

A more recent survey (IFIC 2010) found that consumers responded most positively to people observation essay, benefits of english papers 2011, biotechnology pertaining to the environment and sustainability. The set of technologies that constitute the biotechnology “toolbox” has introduced a new dimension to agricultural and food production innovation. Agricultural biotechnology offers efficient and essay drosophila current research, cost-effective means to produce a diverse array of novel, value-added products. Igcse Literature Past Papers 2011? In addition to the applications already discussed, biotechnology has the relations, potential to increase food production, improve food quality and healthfulness, reduce the dependency of igcse english literature past 2011, agriculture on chemicals, alleviate biotic and abiotic stress (for example, high salt or temperature extremes), and lower the cost of raw materials, all in an environmentally sustainable manner. While the scope of biotechnology's influence in the food industry is broad, the tools of this technology have potential for a major impact in 4 principal areas: crop and animal agriculture, bioprocessing, and diagnostics (Newell-McGloughlin 2008). It is possible to enhance the growing season, yield, disease and pest resistance, and other properties of crops and enhance the nutritional content, texture, color, and on steganography, flavor of foods. Transgenic techniques can be applied to farmed animals to improve their health, growth, fitness, efficiency of literature past 2011, production, and other qualities such as meat and milk. Phd Thesis On Steganography? Microorganisms can also be engineered to english past papers 2011, improve the quality of our environment. In addition to the opportunities for a variety of new products, including biodegradable products, bioprocessing using engineered microbes, offers new ways to treat and use waste and to use renewable resources for materials and fuel. Instead of depending on nonrenewable fossil fuels, organisms can be engineered to convert maize and cereal straw, forest products and municipal waste, and other biomass to produce fuel, plastics, and other useful commodities. The coming generations of crop plants developed via biotechnology can be generally grouped into 4 broad areas: continuing improvement of agronomic traits such as yield and phd thesis on steganography, tolerance to abiotic stress, in addition to literature past 2011, the biotic stress tolerance of the people observation, present generation; crop plants as biomass feedstocks for biofuels and “bio-synthetics;” value-added output traits such as improved nutrition and food functionality; and plants as production sources for therapeutics and industrial products (Newell-McGloughlin 2008).

Developing and commercializing plants with these improved traits, however, involves overcoming a variety of technical, regulatory, and igcse english literature, perception challenges inherent in perceived and essay, real challenges of complex modifications. Both the panoply of traditional plant-breeding tools and igcse literature 2011, modern biotechnology-based techniques will be required to produce plants with the desired quality traits. From a health perspective, plant components of dietary interest can be broadly divided into 4 main categories, which can be further broken down into positive and negative attributions for human nutrition: macronutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids/oils) and fiber; micronutrients (vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals); antinutrients; and allergens, intolerances, and toxins (Newell-McGloughlin 2008). In some cultures, either by design or default, plant-based nutrition constitutes almost 100% of the diet. Given this situation, one can deduce that significant nutritional improvement can be achieved via modifications of staple crops (Newell-McGloughlin 2008). A growing body of evidence indicates that food components can influence physiological processes at all stages of life. Approximately 25000 of the 200000 or so metabolites produced by plants have known value in the human diet (Go and letter adams essay, others 2005).

Analysis of these metabolites, specifically metabolomic analysis, is a valuable tool in igcse 2011, better understanding what has occurred during crop domestication (lost and silenced traits) and in designing new paradigms for more targeted crop improvement that is better tailored to current needs (Hall and others 2008). In addition, with modern techniques, we have the potential to seek out traits of value that were limited in previous breeding strategies. Research to people observation, improve the nutritional quality of plants has historically been limited by igcse english papers 2011, a lack of current, basic knowledge of plant metabolism and the challenge of resolving complex interactions of thousands of metabolic pathways. Igcse English Past Papers? A complementarity of phd thesis, techniques, both traditional and novel, is needed to metabolically engineer plants to produce desired quality traits. Metabolic engineering is generally defined as the redirection of one or more reactions (enzymatic and otherwise) to improve the english literature past papers, production of existing compounds, produce new compounds, or mediate the degradation of undesirable compounds. This involves the redirection of cellular activities by the modification of the enzymatic, transport, and/or regulatory functions of the on steganography, plant cell. Significant progress has been made in recent years in the molecular dissection of many plant pathways and in the use of cloned genes to igcse, engineer plant metabolism. With evolving “omics” tools (genomics, proteomics, metabolomics), a better understanding of the totality of effects of metabolic engineering on metabolites, enzyme activities, and metabolic fluxes (rates of turnover of phd thesis, molecules through a metabolic pathway) is beginning to be developed.

A number of new approaches are being developed to counter some of the igcse, complex problems in metabolic engineering. On Steganography? Through these new technologies, the limitation of single-gene transfers has been overcome and the attendant transfer of multiple components of metabolic pathways has been facilitated. For example, it is english literature past papers, now possible to observation essay, design “minichromosomes” that carry cassettes of igcse literature past 2011, genes, enhancing the ability to engineer plant processes such as the production of complex biochemicals. Paul Christou's laboratory at the Univ. of Lleida in Madrid, Spain, used combinations of genes in a modification that introduced multicomplex metabolic pathways coding for increased beta-carotene, vitamin C, and folate, effectively creating a multivitamin maize cultivar (Naqvi and phd thesis on steganography, others 2009). This system has an added advantage from english literature, a commercial perspective in that these methods circumvent problems with traditional approaches which not only limit the amount of sequences transferred but also may disrupt native genes or lead to poor expression of the transgene, thus reducing both the numbers of transgenic plants that must be screened and the subsequent breeding and harald grethe, other related steps required to select a suitable commercial candidate. Regulatory oversight of igcse literature 2011, engineered products has been designed to detect any unexpected outcomes in rDNA biotechnology-derived crops, and, as demonstrated by Chassy and others (ILSI 2004a, 2004b; ILSI 2008), existing analytical and regulatory systems are adequate to address novel metabolic modifications in nutritionally improved crops. • Nanotechnology. Nanoscale science, engineering, and technologyreferred to as nanotechnologyinclude the fundamental understanding and technological advances arising from the lament essay, understanding of new physical, chemical, and biological properties of matter at the length of scale of approximately 1 to 100 nanometers (nm). Nanotechnology has far-reaching implications for science, engineering, and technology in the 21st century, with tremendous potential for societal benefits and the potential to revolutionize agricultural production and food systems (CSREES/USDA 2003; IFT 2006; Magnuson and others 2007; IFT 2010).

Nanotechnology is rooted in the vision of literature papers 2011, Richard Feynman, 1959 Nobel Laureate in people, physics, who envisioned the english literature 2011, ability to closely observe and harald dissertation, control phenomena and behaviors of matter at the nanometer scale with atomic precision. His vision became reality in the mid-1980s when instrumentation advancements (for example, scanning tunneling microscopy and atomic force microscopy) enabled seeing nanoscale structure and interactions and manipulation of individual atoms with precision. Occurring in the nanometer-length range are many naturally occurring moleculessuch as whey proteins (4 to papers, 6 nm) and lactose (0.5 nm) in milkand man-made biological molecules and supramolecular structures of assemblies of polymers, including proteins and essay drosophila current, polysaccharides (polymers of sugar units, such as starch) (Magnuson and others 2007). English Literature Papers? Exciting novel structures, phenomena, and processes have also been observed at essay drosophila, the nanometer scale during the past 2 decades. In the past decade, governments around the world launched initiatives and industries, and private sectors ventured into research and development of nanotechnologies for english literature past, a wide range of applications, from semiconductors, energy, chemicals, and materials to of icarus essay, medicine, the environment, and food and agriculture. In the food sector, nanotechnology applications are in their infancy but are growing rapidly, estimated to reach more than $20 billion by igcse english past 2011, 2010. In agriculture, nanotechnology holds promise for responding to phd thesis, the need for more precise management of resources such as water, fertilizers, and other agricultural chemicals; improving crop and livestock production; controlling pests, diseases, and weeds; monitoring plant disease and environmental stresses; supporting sustainable and precise production; and improving postharvest technology, including waste management. A nanotechnology-enabled smart-field sensor network, for example, would be advantageous in continuously monitoring environmental data to provide critical information for crop management to attain optimal production yield.

Also, superabsorbent materials with slow release rates have been investigated for improved soil water retention and temperature regulation around plant roots, to igcse papers 2011, decrease irrigation needs. The potential benefits of nanotechnology applied in the food system are anticipated for food safety and defense, food processing, food packaging, and letter adams, ingredient technologies (IFT 2005, 2007, 2010). Nanoscale capsules for delivery of micronutrients and bioactives via functional foods and english past papers 2011, ingredients have been actively studied; evidence suggests that their small size will facilitate access to to john adams, the large area within cellular microvilli of the intestine, thus enhancing absorption. Clemson Univ. scientists have developed a polymer-based nanoparticle that attracts pathogenic bacteria adhering to poultry intestinal walls, thereby aiding their excretion with the bird's feces. Literature Papers 2011? Such nanoparticles might also be added to chicken feed to remove pathogens, minimizing the chance of postslaughter cross-contamination. Other potential food safety-related applications include use of harald, nanosized bubbles that selectively attach to pathogen cells and subsequently burst, damaging the cells. Used for pathogen detection, nanotechnology could enable development of practical detection devices and systems that are more rapid, sensitive, specific, robust, economical, and easily conducted than analytical methods available today. Portable, real-time, and/or in-line detection capability is igcse english papers 2011, being pursued for deployment in food production, postharvest processing, distribution, foodservice, and the home. Other research has investigated nanocomposite polymers that improve food-package barrier properties against oxygen and moisture transmission, protecting oxygen-sensitive foods and reducing packaging costs for manufacturers. Nanocomposite materials have also demonstrated potential for essay current research, use as antimicrobial packaging components, improved package mechanical strength, and biodegradability. Several biodegradable nano-biobarcode technologies have been researched that will aid product traceability, maintenance of product authenticity, identification of product attributes of interest to igcse english past papers, consumers, and monitoring of product changes relevant to quality and safety.

Responsible research and development of nanoscale food materials for the agricultural and food sectors will involve assessment of the adequacy of existing characterization methods and, where necessary, development of new methods to address critical questions for a science-based approach to of icarus essay, understanding the characteristics of the novel engineered substances. Characterization of nanoscale food materials will include study of their stabilities in food matrices and during processing; digestibility and biopersistence; absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion properties; ability to papers, translocate across cell membranes; and potential toxicity at the intended application range/exposure level through oral ingestion. Such characterization will contribute to the establishment of the safety of subsequently deployed new products that incorporate novel nanostructured food additives, ingredients, micronutrients, and micronutrient delivery complexes (IFT 2005, 2007). Recognizing that without consumer acceptance new technologies will not succeed in the marketplace, federal funding agencies and universities are engaged in disseminating through a variety of channelssuch as public radio and interactive displays at lament essay, science centers and papers 2011, museumsinformation about nanotechnology developments emerging from the laboratory, obtaining public input, and studying consumer responses to nanotechnology food applications. An IFIC (2010) survey found that slightly more than one-third of drosophila current research, Americans surveyed had read or heard about igcse 2011 nanotechnology, and that when given examples of potential benefits and food applications half of government case studies, those surveyed were favorable about this technology. Much of the advance in english papers 2011, nanotechnology will depend on the outcome of recently proposed research on its safety, as well as real measuresand communicationof both benefits, such as increased bioavailability of harald, micronutrients, and risks to consumers.

Consumer attitudes will determine the igcse literature, acceptance of novel food items and, to some degree, the of icarus essay, implementation of igcse past 2011, new processing technologies. The decoding of the human genome has promised an affairs case studies era of personalized nutrition. Its first application is already being seen with genetic tests for celiac disease and gluten sensitivity. The growing population makes niche markets feasiblefor example, the market has responded with gluten-free alternatives. We have barely scratched the surface of genomics and igcse literature past papers, are already hearing of the phd thesis, influence of epigeneticschanges in gene activity without alteration of the genetic codeand the potential for epigenetic changes brought about by short-term limitation in food availability to influence obesity in future generations (Bygren and others 2001).

Consumer attitudes will be very important to the eventual adoption of technologies, but will depend in part on how the technologies are introduced. Recombinant culture, referring to Belasco's proposal mentioned above, embraces the consumer's desire for both novelty and constancy, or novelty without risk (Cardello and Wright 2010). To be accepted, new technologies must often be put into the context of the 2011, familiar. Our modern food system is very complex and changes continuously in time and adams, space. English 2011? During the past century, food processing evolved to make food the basis of a healthy civilization, help society overcome hunger and disease, and improve the safety, nutrition, convenience, affordability, and availability of foods. Food processing also changed the on steganography, perception of foods and beverages. Through food science and igcse english literature 2011, technology, the knowledge of many disciplines is applied to transform raw food materials and ingredients into consumable foods available year round. Advances in agriculture and food science and technology have provided reduction in nutrient deficiency-related diseases; enhanced food safety and consistent quality; decreased home food-preparation time; a large variety of delicious food choices; reduced food waste; lower household food costs than ever before; food and meal convenience options; products specifically formulated to meet the nutritional needs of specific subpopulations; and efficient global food distribution, which can be exploited in times of essay, natural and man-made disasters. Misplaced concerns about the food industry's motives in manufacturing processed foods have led to increasing negative perceptions among the general public in the United States. It is a fact that scientific and technical achievements throughout the food systemfrom agriculture and food manufacturing to preparation in the homeallow most people in the developed world to have ready access to literature papers, a diverse, abundant supply of harald, food that is safer, tastier, more nutritious, more convenient, and relatively less expensive than would otherwise be the past 2011, case. Many people in the developing world, however, where a substantial portion of food produced is lost, are not able to make choices from such abundance.

Further advances in science and technology are critically needed to successfully meet the public affairs government case studies, daunting challenges ahead in feeding the igcse english papers, growing world population, especially in the areas of greatest need. The new tools of phd thesis on steganography, biotechnology hold promise for meeting the needs of our rapidly growing world population more efficiently and cost effectively through improved crop production yields, ability to grow crops in environmentally stressful conditions, and improved nutrient availability and delivery in an environmentally sustainable manner. Obesity, unfortunately, is a complex issue of concern in the developed world. With scientific and technological advancements, food manufacturers have been able to provide many more options than were available years ago for consumers who seek to manage their weight. These options include food and literature past papers, beverage products with reduced caloric density and packaging as a component of portion control. Technologies on the horizon also offer additional opportunities to create more weight-management options. Use of technologies to improve the food supply and contribute to human health and wellness is a responsible use of resources. It is important to grethe dissertation, recognize that obesity is a complex issue of behavior.

Further developments in igcse papers, genomics, metabolomics, and nutrigenomics hold tremendous promise for to john adams essay, development of individualistic solutions to obesity. Through nutrigenomics and metabolomics, personalized nutrition for health and english literature past, wellness will become better understood and a more practical reality for a larger number of people. Such changes will no doubt lead to changes in regulatory oversight and new approaches to food marketing. Genomics will allow improved food quality and protection from pathogens, through opportunities ranging from phd thesis, probiotic foods to more precise pathogen interventions. Nanotechnology can be expected to have beneficial impacts throughout the food system, from agricultural production, where it may enable more precise management of resources, to personalized nutrition, which holds potential for enhancing delivery and igcse english literature papers, absorption of nutrients and bioactive substances via functional foods. With continued developments in nanotechnology, we can anticipate new mechanisms for essay, detecting and controlling pathogens, in literature, both the agricultural and food-manufacturing sectors. Today and in on steganography, the future, the food system must be flexible and resilient, consumer driven, and sustainable, and it must secure the environment and igcse english past, natural resources and assure the health and wellness of an increasing number of consumers.

Food science and technology can help us advance the food system, minimize risks, maximize benefits, and deliver a safe, nutritious, and abundant food supply to all people around the world. Food science and technology professionals must work together with many othersthe food industry, and those in the regulatory and public policy communities. To John Essay? And society must invest in basic and igcse english past papers 2011, applied research and education and outreach. With science and technology solutions available to address specific issues throughout the food system, our ability to feed a growing population in a sustainable way, while safeguarding both human and planet health, looks not only possible, but also promising. We must, however, remain steadfast and rational about to john our approach, to help both humanity and english literature, nature. IFT greatly appreciates the efforts of the contributing authors, editor, members of the task force who contributed to the concept for this document, peer reviewers, and the organization providing financial support. John D. Phd Thesis? Floros, a Fellow and Past President of IFT, is Professor and Head, Dept. of Food Science, at Pennsylvania State Univ. Rosetta Newsome is igcse literature papers, Director of Science and Policy Initiatives at the Inst. of Food Technologists. William Fisher is Vice President of Science and Policy Initiatives at the Institute of Food Technologists.

Gustavo V. To John? Barbosa-Cánovas, a Fellow of IFT, is igcse literature past, Professor of Food Engineering at Washington State Univ. Phd Thesis On Steganography? Hongda Chen is Natl. Program Leader at the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture's Natl. Inst. of Food and Agriculture. C. Patrick Dunne, a Fellow of 2011, IFT, is Senior Research Scientist at the U.S.

Army Natick Soldier Center. J. Bruce German is of icarus, Professor, Dept. of Food Science and Technology, at the Univ. of igcse literature papers 2011, California, Davis. Richard L. Hall is a Fellow and Past President of IFT and a Past President of the Intl.Union of Food Science and Technology. On Steganography? Dennis R. Heldman, a Fellow and Past President of IFT, is Principal of Heldman Associates. Mukund V. Karwe is Professor, Dept. of Food Science, at Rutgers Univ. Stephen J. Knabel is Professor, Dept. of igcse literature papers 2011, Food Science, at Pennsylvania State Univ. Theodore P. Labuza, a Fellow and Past President of IFT, is Professor of Food Science at the Univ. of Minnesota. Daryl B. Lund, a Fellow and Past President of IFT, is Emeritus Professor at the Univ. of public case, Wisconsin-Madison.

Martina Newell-McGloughlin is Director, Systemwide Biotechnology Research and Education Program, at the Univ. of California, Davis. James L. Robinson is Professor Emeritus at the Univ. of Illinois. Joseph G. Sebranek, a Fellow of IFT, is Professor, Dept. of Food Science and Human Nutrition, at Iowa State Univ. Robert L. Shewfelt, a Fellow of IFT, is Meigs Professor and Undergraduate Coordinator, Dept. of Food Science and Technology, at the Univ. of Georgia. William F. Tracy is igcse literature past papers, Professor and Chair, Dept. of Agronomy, at the Univ. of Wisconsin-Madison.

Connie M. Weaver, a Fellow of IFT, is essay current, Distinguished Professor and literature past papers, Head, Dept. of Foods and Nutrition, at Purdue Univ. Gregory R. Ziegler is Professor, Dept. of Food Science, at observation essay, Pennsylvania State Univ. Neil H. Mermelstein, a Fellow of IFT, is Editor Emeritus,  Food Technology , Institute of Food Technologists. John D. Floros (chair), a Fellow and Past President of IFT, is Professor and Head, Dept. of Food Science, at igcse english literature past papers, Pennsylvania State Univ. David M. Berube is Professor, Communication, at North Carolina State Univ. Essay Current? Richard T. Crowder is Professor, Agricultural and Applied Economics, at Virginia Tech. Eric A. Decker is Professor and Head, Dept. of Food Science, at literature 2011, the Univ. of essay, Massachusetts. Richard L. Hall is a Fellow and Past President of IFT and a Past President of the Intl. Union of Food Science and igcse 2011, Technology. Public Case Studies? Gilbert A. Igcse English Past 2011? Leveille, a Fellow and Past President of IFT, is Executive Director, at letter essay, Wrigley Science Inst. Daryl B. Lund, a Fellow and Past President of IFT, is Emeritus Professor at the Univ. of Wisconsin.

Robert L. Shewfelt, a Fellow of IFT, is Meigs Professor and Undergraduate Coordinator, Dept. of Food Science and Technology, at the Univ. of Georgia. Noel E. Anderson is Vice President, Technical Insights, at Pepsico Inc. Christine M. Igcse Literature? Bruhn, a Fellow of IFT, is Director, Center for Consumer Research, Dept. of Food Science and Technology, at public studies, the Univ. of literature past papers, California, Davis. Fergus M. Clydesdale, a Fellow of IFT, is Distinguished Professor and Director, Food Science Policy Alliance, at the Univ. of Massachusetts. Phd Thesis On Steganography? William K. Hallman is Professor, Dept. of Human Ecology, at Rutgers Univ. and Director at english papers 2011, the Food Policy Inst. Gilbert A. Leveille, a Fellow and Past President of affairs studies, IFT, is Executive Director at igcse english literature past 2011, the Wrigley Science Inst. Mark R. Public Affairs Relations Case Studies? McLellan, a Fellow and Past President of IFT, is Dean for Research and Director of the Florida Agricultural Experiment Station, at the Univ. of english literature past, Florida. IFT gratefully acknowledges a grant from the Intl. Food Information Council that helped support the production of this scientific review. 2010 Institute of Food Technologists ®

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